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SACRED 

AND 

LEGENDARY  ART. 

VOL.  I. 

? 


By  the  sa7ne  Author, 

Legends  of  the  Madonna. 

Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders. 
Characteristics  of  Women. 

Loves  of  the  Poets. 

Diary  of  an  Ennuyee. 

Sketches  of  Art. 

Itaitan  Painters. 

Studies  and  Stories. 


LmfiARY 

UNiVEBSSTY  OF  ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


*■ 


ACRED 


AND 


EGENDARY 


Bt  MRS.  JAMESON. 

VOL.  I. 

CONTAINING 

LEGENDS  OP  THE  ANGELS  AND  ARCHANGELS,  THE  EVANGELISTS, 
THE  APOSTLES,  THE  DOCTORS  OF  THE  CHURCH, 

AND  ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE, 

AS 

Represented  in  the  Fine  Arts, 


BOSTON: 

TICKNOR  AND  FIELDS 
1866. 


University  Press: 
Welch,  Bigelow,  and  Company, 
Cambridge. 


Jan  48  g Jacksojivilie  PL  2.4^^/ 


C N,  \ 


I 


NOTE  BY  THE  PUBLISHERS. 

OME  time  since  Mrs.  Jameson  kindly  con- 
sented to  prepare  for  this  Edition  of  her 
writings  her  Sacred  and  Legendary  Art,” 
‘‘Legends  of  the  Madonna,”  and  “Legends  of  the 
Monastic  Orders,”  but  dying  before  she  had  time  to 
fulfil  her  promise,  the  arrangement  has  been  intrusted 
to  other  hands.  The  text  of  the  whole  series  is  an 
exact  reprint  of  the  last  English  editions. 

TICKNOR  AND  FIELDS. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  THIRD  EDITION. 


HE  Author  ventures  to  hope  that,  on  com- 
paring this  Third  Edition  of  “ Sacred  and 
Legendary  Art  ” with  the  two  preceding,  it 
will  be  found  greatly  improved,  and  ren- 
dered more  worthy  of  the  kind  approbation  and  sym- 
pathy with  which  it  has  been  received.  The  whole 
has  been  carefully  revised ; the  references  to  the  pic- 
tures and  other  works  of  Art  corrected  from  the  latest 
authorities,  and  many  new  examples  have  been  added. 
In  a work  so  multifarious  in  its  nature,  and  compris- 
ing so  many  hundred  subjects  and  references,  there 
may  remain  some  errors  and  omissions,  but  they  have 
not  occurred  from  want  of  care  ; and  I must  not  omit 
to  express  due  thanks  for  the  observations  and  correc- 
tions which  have  been  forwarded  to  me  from  time  to 
time,  and  which  have  been  in  this  Edition  carefully 
attended  to. 

A.  J. 

January,  1857. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 

(1848.) 


HIS  book  was  begun  six  years  ago,  in  1842. 
It  has  since  been  often  laid  aside,  and  again 
resumed.  In  this  long  interval,  many  use- 
ful and  delightful  works  have  been  written 
on  the  same  subject,  but  still  the  particular  ground 
I had  chosen  remained  unoccupied ; and,  amid  many 
difficulties,  and  the  consciousness  of  many  deficiencies, 
I was  encouraged  to  proceed,  partly  by  the  pleasure  I 
took  in  a task  so  congenial,  — partly  by  the  conviction 
that  such  a work  has  long  been  wanted  by  those  who 
are  not  contented  with  a mere  manual  of  reference,  or 
a mere  catalogue  of  names.  This  book  is  intended 
not  only  to  be  consulted,  but  to  be  read,  — if  it  be 
found  worth  reading.  It  has  been  written  for  those 
who  are,  like  myself,  unlearned ; yet  less,  certainly, 
with  the  idea  of  instructing,  than  from  a wish  to  share 
with  others  those  pleasurable  associations,  those  ever 
new  and  ever  various  aspects  of  character  and  senti- 
ment, as  exhibited  in  Art,  which  have  been  a source 
of  such  vivid  enjoyment  to  myself. 

This  is  the  utmost  limit  of  my  ambition ; and, 
knowing  that  I cannot  escape  criticism,  I am  at  least 
anxious  that  there  should  be  no  mistake  as  to  purpose 
and  intention.  I hope  it  will  be  clearly  understood 
that  I have  taken  throughout  the  aesthetic  and  not  the 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION,  ix 


religious  view  of  those  productions  of  Art  which,  in  as 
far  as  they  are  informed  with  a true  and  earnest  feeling, 
and  steeped  in  that  heauty  which  emanates  from  genius 
inspired  by  faith,  may  cease  to  be  Religion,  but  cannot 
cease  to  be  Poetry;  and  as  poetry  only  I have  cpn- 
sidered  them. 

The  difficulty  of  selection  and  compression  has  been 
the  greatest  of  all  my  difficulties ; there  is  not  a chap- 
ter in  this  book  which  might  not  have  been  more 
easily  extended  to  a volume  than  compressed  into 
a few  pages.  Every  reader,  however,  who  is  inter- 
ested in  the  subject,  may  supply  the  omissions,  follow 
out  the  suggestions,  and  enjoy  the  pleasure  of  discover- 
ing new  exceptions,  new  analogies,  for  himself.  With 
regard  to  the  arrangement,  I am  afraid  it  will  be  found 
liable  to  objections ; but  it  is  the  best  that,  after  long 
consideration  and  many  changes,  I could  fix  upon. 
It  is  not  formal,  nor  technical,  like  that  of  a catalogue 
or  a calendar,  but  intended  to  lead  the  fancy  naturally 
from  subject  to  subject  as  one  opened  upon  another, 
with  just  sufficient  order  to  keep  the  mind  unperplexed 
and  the  attention  unfatigued  amid  a great  diversity  of 
objects,  scenes,  stories,  and  characters. 

The  authorities  for  the  legends  have  been  the  Legenda 
Aurea  of  Yoragine,  in  the  old  French  and  English 
translations  ; the  Flos  Sanctorum  of  Ribadeneira,  in  the 
old  French  translation  ; the  Perfetto  Legendario^  editions 
of  Rome  and  Venice;  the  Legende  delle  Sante  Vergini, 
Florence  and  Venice ; the  large  work  of  Baillet,  Les 
Vies  des  Saints,  in  thirty-two  volumes,  most  useful  for 
the  historical  authorities  ; and  Alban  Butler’s  Lives  of 
the  Saints.  All  these  have  been  consulted  for  such 
particulars  of  circumstance  and  character  as  might 
illustrate  the  various  representations,  and  then  com- 
pressed into  a narrative  as  clear  as  I could  render  it. 
Where  one  authority  only  has  been  followed,  it  is 
usually  placed  in  the  margin. 


X PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


The  First  Part  contains  the  legends  of  the  Scriptural 
personages  and  the  primitive  Fathers. 

The  Second  Part  contains  those  sainted  personages 
who  lived,  or  are  supposed  to  have  lived,  in  the  first 
ages  of  Christianity,  and  whose  real  history,  founded 
on  fact  or  tradition,  has  been  so  disguised  by  poetical 
embroidery,  that  they  have  in  some  sort  the  air  of 
ideal  beings.  As  I could  not  undertake  to  go  through 
the  whole  calendar,  nor  yet  to  make  my  book  a catar 
logue  of  pictures  and  statues,  I have  confined  myself 
to  the  saints  most  interesting  and  important,  and 
(with  very  few  exceptions)  to  those  works  of  art  of 
which  I could  speak  from  my  own  knowledge. 

The  legends  of  the  monastic  orders,  and  the  history 
of  the  Franciscans  and  Dominicans,  considered  merely 
in  their  connection  with  the  revival  and  development 
of  the  Fine  Arts  in  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centu- 
ries, open  so  wide  a range  of  speculation,  — the  charac- 
teristics of  these  religious  enthusiasts  of  both  sexes  are 
so  full  of  interest  and  beauty  as  artistic  conceptions, 
and  as  psychological  and  philosophical  studies  so  ex- 
traordinary, that  I could  not,  in  conscience,  compress 
them  into  a few  pages ; they  form  a volume  complete 
in  itself,  entitled,  Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders.^' 

To  collect  a portfolio  of  prints,  including  those  works 
of  art  which  are  cited  under  each  head  as  examples, 
with  a selection  from  the  hundreds  of  others  which  are 
not  cited,  and  arrange  them  in  the  same  order,  — with 
reference,  not  to  schools,  or  styles,  or  dates,  but  to  sub- 
ject merely,  — would  be  an  amusing,  and  I think  not 
a profitless,  occupation.  It  could  not  be  done  in  the 
right  spirit  without  leading  the  mind  far  beyond  the 
mere  pleasure  of  comparison  and  criticism,  to  thoughts 
more  elevate  and  reasonings  high  of  things  celestial 
and  terrestrial,  as  shadowed  forth  in  form  by  the  wit 
and  the  hand  of  man. 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  I 


INTRODUCTION. 

Page 

I.  Of  the  Origin  and  general  Significance  of  the  Legends 

represented  in  Art 1 

n.  Of  the  Distinction  to  be  drawn  between  Devotional  and 

Historical  Subjects 12 

III.  Of  the  Patron  Saints  of  particular  Countries,  Cities, 

and  Localities 20 

IV.  Of  certain  Emblems  and  Attributes  of  general  Applica- 

tion   26 

V.  Of  the  Significance  of  Colors.  Conclusion  . . 41 

OF  ANGELS  AND  ARCHANGELS. 

Of  Angels.  Antiquity  of  the  Belief  in  Angels.  Early  No- 
tions respecting  them.  How  represented  in  the  Old 
Testament.  In  the  New  Testament.  Angelic  Hierar- 
chies. ' The  Nine  Choirs.  Seraphim,  Cherubim.  Gen- 


eral Characteristics  in  Painting.  Infant  Angels.  Wings. 
Angels  of  Dante.  Angels  as  Messengers,  Choristers, 
Guardians.  As  Ministers  of  Wrath.  As  Agents  in  the 
Creation.  Manner  in  which  the  principal  Painters  have 
set  forth  the  Angelic  Forms  and  Attributes  ...  47 

The  Archangels.  The  Seven  Archangels.  The  Four  Arch- 
angels. The  Three  Archangels 91 

St.  Michael 96 

St.  Gabriel 119 

St.  Raphael 126 

Additional  Notes  on  Angels 131 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  /. 


xii 


THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS. 

The  earliest  Types  : as  Four  Books  ; as  Four  Rivers  ; as  the 
Four  Mysterious  Animals  j the  Human  and  Animal 
Forms  combined  j with  Wings  ; as  Men  . . . 132 

St.  Matthew.  His  Legend.  His  Attributes.  Pictures  from 

his  Life  not  common 142 

St.  Mark.  His  Legend.  Devotional  Pictures  : as  Evange- 
list ; as  the  Disciple  of  Peter  j as  the  Patron  Saint  of 
Venice.  The  Legend  of  the  Fisherman.  The  Legend  of 
the  Christian  Slave.  The  Translation  of  the  Body  of  St. 

Mark 146 

St.  Luke.  His  Legend.  Devotional  Figures.  Attributes: 
as  Evangelist  and  Painter.  St.  Luke  painting  the  Vir- 
gin   155 

St.  John.  His  Legend.  Devotional  Pictures : as  Evange- 
list *,  as  Apostle  j as  Prophet.  Subjects  from  his  Life  ; 
Legend  of  St.  John  and  the  Robber  ; of  the  two  Young 
Men  5 of  Drusiana  ; of  the  Huntsmen  and  the  Partridge. 

The  Martyrdom  of  St.  John.  Legend  of  the  Death  of  St. 

John.  Legend  of  Galla  Placidia.  Of  King  Edward  the 

Confessor 158 

The  Six  Writers  of  the  Canonical  Epistles,  as  a Series  . 175 

THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES. 

Ancient  Types : as  Twelve  Sheep  •,  as  Twelve  Doves  *,  as 
Twelve  Men.  How  grouped  in  Ecclesiastical  Decora- 
tion. In  the  Old  Mosaics  ; their  proper  Place.  Exam- 
ples from  various  Painters.  Historical  Subjects  relating 
to  the  Twelve  Apostles  : the  Pentecost  the  Separation 
of  the  Twelve  Apostles  to  preach  the  Gospel ; the  Twelve 
Baptisms  ; the  Twelve  Martyrdoms  ....  176 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  The  Ancient  Greek  Types.  Ex- 
amples of  the  early  Treatment  of  these  two  Apostles  : in 
the  old  Mosaics  ; in  early  Sculpture  j in  Pictures  . . 190 

St.  Peter.  His  peculiar  Attributes  : as  Apostle  and  Patron 
Saint ; as  the  Head  and  Founder  of  the  Roman  Church  ; 

St.  Peter  as  Pope.  Subjects  from  the  Scriptural  Life  of 
St.  Peter.  Legendary  Stories  connected  with  St.  Peter. 

The  Legend  of  Simon  Magus;  of  the  “Do?«me  quo 
Vadis  ? ” of  Processus  and  Martinian.  The  Martyrdom 
of  St.  Peter.  St.  Peter  as  Keeper  of  the  Gates  of  Para- 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  I. 


xiii 


dise.  The  Legend  of  St.  Petronilla.  The  Life  of  St. 

Peter  in  a Series  of  Subjects  . . . . . . 208 

St.  Paul.  Earliest  Type.  Attributes  of  St.  Paul:  the 
Sword.  Subjects  from  his  Life.  Stoning  of  Stephen. 
Conversion  of  St.  Paul.  The  Vision  of  St.  Paul.  Mira- 
cles of  St.  Paul.  His  Martyrdom.  The  Legend  of  Plau- 
tilla.  The  Life  of  St.  Paul  in  a Series  of  Subjects  . 218 
St.  Andrew.  The  Legend.  Attributes.  Historical  Subjects 
from  the  Life  of  St.  Andrew.  Flagellation.  Adoration 
of  the  Cross.  Martyrdom  as  represented  by  Guido,  Do- 

menichino,  and  Murillo * . 234 

St.  James  Major.  Story  and  Character  as  represented  in 
Scripture.  St.  James  as  Patron  of  Spain.  The  Legend 
of  Santiago.  The  Battle  of  Clavijo.  The  Pilgrims  of 
Compostella.  The  Devotional  Figures  and  Attributes  of 
St.  James  the  Apostle.  As  Tutelar  Saint  of  Spain.  Pic- 
tures from  his  Legend 238 

St.  Philip.  The  Legend  of  the  Idol  and  the  Serpent.  De- 
votional Pictures  and  Attributes.  Subjects  from  his 
Legend.  Distinction  between  St.  Philip  the  Apostle  and 

St.  Philip  the  Deacon 249 

St.  Bartholomew.  The  Legend.  The  Attributes.  Martyr 

dom 252 

St.  Thomas.  Origin  of  his  peculiar  Attribute.  The  Legend 
of  King  Gondoforus.  The  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas. 

The  Legend  of  the  '•'‘Madonna  della  Cintola^  Mar- 
tyrdom of  St.  Thomas 253 

St.  James  Minor.  First  Bishop  of  Jerusalem.  Attributes. 
Resemblance  to  Christ.  Subjects  from  his  Life.  Mar- 
tyrdom. Frescos  at  Padua 259 

St.  Simon  and  St.  Jude.  Legend  and  Attributes.  Repre- 
sented as  Children 261 

St.  MATTm.AS.  Attributes  .......  263 

Judas  Iscariot.  Scriptural  Character.  Legends  relating 

to  him  *,  how  represented  in  various  Subjects  . . . 263 

The  Last  Supper.  Its  Importance  as  a Sacred  Subject. 
Devotional  when  it  represents  the  Institution  of  the 
Eucharist.  Historical  when  it  represents  the  Detection 
of  Judas.  Various  Examples.  Giotto.  Duccio  of  Siena. 
Angelico  da  Fiesole.  Luca  Signorelli.  Ghirlandajo. 
Albert  DUrer.  Leonardo  da  Vinci.  Raphael.  Andrea 
del  Sarto.  Titian.  Poussin 270 


xiv  CONTENTS  OF  VOL,  I. 

Faults  and  Mistakes  committed  by  Painters  in  representing 

the  Last  Supper 284 

St.  Barnabas.  His  Legend.  Popular  at  Venice  as  Kinsman 
of  St.  Mark.  Represented  with  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 
thew   290 


THE  DOCTORS  OP  THE  CHURCH. 

The  Pour  Latin  Pathers.  Their  Peculiar  Attributes.  Their 
proper  Place  in  Ecclesiastical  Decoration.  Subjects  in 
which  they  are  introduced  together  ....  293 

St.  Jerome.  History  and  Character.  Influence  over  the 
Roman  Women.  Origin  of  his  Attributes.  Legend  of 
the  Wounded  Lion.  Devotional  Pigures  of  St.  Jerome : 
as  Patron  Saint  ; as  Translator  of  the  Scriptures  5 as 
Penitent.  Subjects  from  the  Life  of  St.  Jerome.  The 
Communion  of  St.  Jerome 300 

St.  Ambrose.  Story  and  Character  of  St.  Ambrose.  The 
Emperor  Theodosius.  The  Discovery  of  the  Martyrs  St. 
Protasius  and  St.  Gervasius.  Legends  relating  to  St. 
Ambrose.  The  Prefect  Macedonius.  The  Nobleman  of 
Tuscany.  Devotional  Pigures  of  St.  Ambrose.  His  pe- 
culiar Attributes.  His  Church  at  Milan  5 his  Life  as 
represented  on  the  Altar.  Statue  of  St.  Ambrose  . . 315 

St.  Augustine.  Character  of  St.  Augustine.  His  Shrine  at 
Pavia,  and  Basso-relievos  representing  his  Life.  Devo- 
tional Pigures  of  St.  Augustine.  Represented  with  his 
Mother,  Monica.  Various  Subjects  from  his  Life.  The 
Vision  of  St.  Augustine 

St.  Gregory.  His  Story  and  Character.  His  Popularity. 
Legends  connected  with  his  Life.  Origin  of  his  Attribute, 
the  Dove.  The  Supper  of  St.  Gregory.  The  Mass  of  St. 
Gregory.  The  Miracle  of  the  Brandeum.  St.  Gregory 
releases  the  Soul  of  the  Emperor  Trajan.  The  Legend  as 
represented  in  Pictures.  The  Legend  of  the  Monk.  St. 
Gregory’s  Doctrine  of  Purgatory.  How  represented. 

The  Pour  Greek  Pathers.  How  represented  in  the  Greek 
Pictures,  and  by  the  Latin  Artists 

St.  John  Chrysostom.  'Singular  Legends  with  regard  to  him. 

The  Penance  of  St.  Chrysostom.  As  represented  in  the 
German  Prints.  By  Lucas  Cranach.  By  Behara.  By 
Albert  Diirer 


331 

342 

343 


CONTENTS  OF  VOL.  1. 


XV 


St.  Basil  the  Great.  His  Character.  How”  represented. 

Story  of  the  Emperor  Valens.  Legends  which  refer  to  St. 

Basil 354 

St.  Athanasius.  How  represented.  Unpopular  as  a subject 

of  Art 358 

St.  Gregory  Nazianzen.  His  History  and  Character.  His 
celebrity  as  a Poet.  Beautiful  Miniatures  relative  to  his 

Life 359 

St.  Cyril.  How  represented 362 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE,  ST.  MARTHA,  ST.  LAZARUS,  ST. 
MAXIMIN,  ST.  MARCELLA,  ST.  MARY  OP  EGYPT,  AND 
THE  BEATIFIED  PENITENTS. 

Character  of  Mary  Magdalene.  Disputes  concerning  her 
Identity.  The  Popular  and  Scriptural  Legend.  The  old 
ProvenQal  Legend.  The  Devotional  Representations: 
as  Patron  Saint  5 as  Penitent.  Sacred  Subjects  in  which 
she  is  introduced.  Legendary  Subjects.  La  Danse  de 
la  Madeleine.  The  Assumption  of  the  Magdalene.  The 
Legend  of  the  Mother  and  Child,  Her  Life  in  a Series 
of  Subjects.  Legends  of  Mary  Magdalene  and  St.  John 

the  Evangelist 363 

St.  Martha.  Her  Character.  Legends  of  St.  Martha.  How 

represented.  Where  introduced 404 

St.  Lazarus 406 

St.  Mary  of  Egypt.  The  Legend.  Distinction  between  St. 

Mary  of  Egypt  and  Mary  Magdalene.  Proper  Attributes 
of  Mary  of  Egypt.  Stories  and  Pictures  from  her  Life  . 408 

Mary  the  Penitent,  not  to  be  confounded  with  Mary  of 
Egypt.  Her  Story.  Landscapes  of  Philip  de  Cham- 
pagne   .414 

St.  Thais.  St.  Pelagia 416 


f ''J 

..  v; 

‘ 3 ;tj/r(i.l(>-:  "if^ 

'.  '‘i  ■ 

■ - . • -riv.  »>3  ' 


INTRODUCTION. 

- ♦ — 

I.  Of  the  Origin  and  General  Significance  op 
THE  Legends  represented  in  Art. 

E cannot  look  round  a picture  gallery,  we 
cannot  turn  over  a portfolio  of  prints  after 
the  old  masters,  nor  even  the  modem  en- 
gravings which  pour  upon  us  daily,  from 
Paris,  Munich,  or  Berlin,  without  perceiving  how  many 
of  the  most  celebrated  productions  of  Art,  more  par- 
ticularly those  which  have  descended  to  us  from  the 
early  Italian  and  German  schools,  represent  incidents 
and  characters  taken  from  the  once  popular  legends  of 
the  Catholic  Church.  This  form  of  ^^Hero-Worship** 
has  become,  since  the  Eeformation,  strange  to  us,  — as 
far  removed  from  our  sympathies  and  associations  as 
if  it  were  antecedent  to  the  fall  of  Babylon  and  related 
to  the  religion  of  Zoroaster,  instead  of  being  left  but 
two  or  three  centuries  behind  us  and  closely  connected 
with  the  faith  of  our  forefathers  and  the  history  of  civil- 
ization and  Christianity.  Of  late  years,  with  a grow- 
ing passion  for  the  works  of  Art  of  the  Middle  Ages, 
there  has  arisen  among  us  a desire  to  comprehend  the 
state  of  feeling  which  produced  them,  and  the  legends 
and  traditions  on  which  they  are  founded ; — a desire 
to  understand,  and  to  bring  to  some  surer  critical  test, 
representations  which  have  become  familiar  without 
being  intelligible.  To  enable  us  to  do  this,  we  must 
pause  for  a moment  at  the  outset;  and,  before  we 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


plunge  into  the  midst  of  things,  ascend  to  higher 
ground,  and  command  a far  wider  range  of  illustration 
than  has  yet  been  attempted,  in  order  to  take  cognizance 
of  principles  and  results  which,  if  not  new,  must  be 
contemplated  in  a new  relation  to  each  other. 

The  Legendary  Art  of  the  Middle  Ages  sprang  out 
of  the  legendary  literature  of  the  preceding  ages.  For 
three  centuries  at  least  this  literature,  the  only  literature 
which  existed  at  the  time,  formed  the  sole  mental  and 
moral  nourishment  of  the  people  of  Europe.  The 
romances  of  Chivalry,  which  long  afterwards  succeeded, 
were  confined  to  particular  classes,  and  left  no  impress 
on  Art,  beyond  the  miniature  illuminations  of  a few 
manuscripts.  This  legendary  literature,  on  the  con- 
trary, which  had  worked  itself  into  the  life  of  the  people, 
became,  like  the  antique  mythology,  as  a living  soul 
diffused  through  the  loveliest  forms  of  Art,  still  vivid 
and  vivifying,  even  when  the  old  faith  in  its  mystical 
significance  was  lost  or  forgotten.  And  it  is  a mistake 
to  suppose  that  these  legends  had  their  sole  origin  in 
the  brains  of  dreaming  monks.  The  wildest  of  them 
had  some  basis  of  truth  to  rest  on,  and  the  forms  which 
they  gradually  assumed  were  but  the  necessary  result 
of  the  age  which  produced  them.  They  became  the 
intense  expression  of  that  inner  life,  which  revolted 
against  the  desolation  and  emptiness  of  the  outward 
existence ; of  those  crushed  and  outraged  sympathies 
which  cried  aloud  for  rest,  and  refuge,  and  solace,  and 
could  nowhere  find  them.  It  will  be  said,  “ In  the 
purer  doctrine  of  the  Gospel.^^  But  where  was  that 
to  be  found  ? The  Gospel  was  not  then  the  heritage 
of  the  poor : Christ,  as  a comforter,  walked  not  among 
men.  His  own  blessed  teaching  was  inaccessible  ex- 
cept to  the  learned : it  was  shut  up  in  rare  manuscripts ; 
it  was  perverted  and  sophisticated  by  the  passions  and 
the  blindness  of  those  few  to  whom  it  was  accessible. 
The  bitter  disputes  in  the  early  Church  relative  to  the 
nature  of  the  Godhead,  the  subtle  distinctions  and  in- 


INTRODUCTION. 


3 


comprehensible  arguments  of  the  theologians,  the  dread 
entertained  by  the  predominant  church  of  any  heterodox 
opinions  concerning  the  divinity  of  the  Redeemer,  had 
all  conspired  to  remove  Hirriy  in  his  personal  character 
of  Teacher  and  Saviour,  far  away  from  the  hearts  of 
the  benighted  and  miserable  people,  — far,  far  away  into 
regions  speculative,  mysterious,  spiritual,  whither  they 
could  not,  dared  not,  follow  Him.  In  this  state  of 
things,  as  it  has  been  remarked  by  a distinguished 
writer,  Christ  became  the  object  of  a remoter,  a more 
awful  adoration.  The  mind  began,  therefore,  to  seek 
out,  or  eagerly  to  seize,  some  other  more  material  beings 
in  closer  alliance  with  human  sympathies.’’  And  the 
same  author,  after  tracing  in  vivid  and  beautiful  lan- 
guage the  dangerous  but  natural  consequences  of  this 
feeling,  thus  -sums  up  the  result : “ During  the  perilous 
and  gloomy  days  of  persecution,  the  reverence  for  those 
who  endured  martyrdom  for  the  religion  of  Christ  had 
grown  up  out  of  the  best  feelings  of  man’s  improved 
nature.  Reverence  gradually  grew  into  veneration, 
worship,  adoration : and  although  the  more  rigid  the- 
ology maintained  a marked  distinction  between  the 
honor  shown  to  the  martyrs  and  that  addressed  to  the 
Redeemer  and  the  Supreme  Being,  the  line  was  too 
fine  and  invisible  not  to  be  transgressed  by  excited 
popular  feeling.”  ^ 

We  live,”  says  the  poet,  through  admiration, 
hope,  and  love.”  Out  of  these  vital  aspirations  — not 
indeed  always  **  well  or  wisely  placed,”  but  never,  as 
in  the  heathen  mythology,  degraded  to  vicious  and 
contemptible  objects  — arose  and  spread  the  universal 
passion  for  the  traditional  histories  of  the  saints  and 
martyrs,  — personages  endeared  and  sanctified  in  all 
hearts,  partly  as  examples  of  the  loftiest  virtue,  partly 
as  benign  intercessors  between  suffering  humanity  and 
that  Deity  who,  in  every  other  light  than  as  a God  of 

* Milman,  History  of  Christianity,  III.  540. 


4 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


Vengeance,  had  been  veiled  from  their  eyes  by  the  per- 
versities of  schoolmen  and  fanatics,  till  He  had  receded 
beyond  their  reach,  almost  beyond  their  comprehension. 
Of  the  prevalence  and  of  the  incalculable  influence  of 
this  legendary  literature  from  the  seventh  to  the  tenth 
century,  that  is,  just  about  the  period  when  Modern 
Art  was  struggling  into  existence,  we  have  a most 
striking  picture  in  Guizot’s  Histoire  de  la  Civilisa- 
tion.” As  after  the  siege  of  Troy  (says  this  philo- 
sophical and  eloquent  writer)  there  were  found,  in  every 
city  of  Greece,  men  who  collected  the  traditions  and 
adventures  of  heroes,  and  sung  them  for  the  recreation 
of  the  people,  till  these  recitals  became  a national  pas- 
sion, a national  poetry ; so,  at  the  time  of  which  we 
speak,  the  traditions  of  what  may  be  called  the  heroic 
ages  of  Christianity  had  the  same  interest  for  the  na- 
tions of  Europe.  There  were  men  who  made  it  their 
business  to  collect  them,  to  transcribe  them,  to  read  or 
recite  them  aloud,  for  the  edification  and  delight  of  the 
people.  And  this  was  the  only  literature,  properly  so 
called,  of  that  time.” 

Now,  if  we  go  back  to  the  authentic  histories  of  the 
sufferings  and  heroism  of  the  early  martyrs,  we  shall 
find  enough  there,  both  of  the  wonderful  and  the  affect- 
ing, to  justify  the  credulity  and  enthusiasm  of  the  un- 
lettered people,  who  saw  no  reason  why  they  should 
not  believe  in  one  miracle  as  well  as  in  another.  In 
these  universally  diffused  legends,  we  may  recognize 
the  means,  at  least  one  of  the  means,  by  which  a mer- 
ciful Providence,  working  through  its  own  immutable 
laws,  had  provided  against  the  utter  depravation,  al- 
most extinction,  of  society.  Of  the  “ Dark  Ages,” 
emphatically  so  called,  the  period  to  which  I allude 
was  perhaps  the  darkest ; it  was  <<  of  Night’s  black 
arch  the  key-stone.”  At  a time  when  men  were  given 
over  to  the  direst  evils  that  can  afflict  humanity,  — 
ignorance,  idleness,  wickedness,  misery ; at  a time 
when  the  every-day  incidents  of  life  were  a violation  of 
all  the  moral  instincts  of  mankind  ; at  a time  when  all 


INTRODUCTION, 


5 


things  seemed  abandoned  to  a blind  chance,  or  the 
brutal  law  of  force ; when  there  was  no  repose,  no  ref- 
uge, no  safety  anywhere  ; when  the  powerful  inflicted, 
and  the  weak  endured,  whatever  we  can  conceive  of 
most  revolting  and  intolerable ; when  slavery  was  rec- 
ognized by  law  throughout  Europe;  when  men  fled 
to  cloisters,  to  shut  themselves  from  oppression,  and 
women  to  shield  themselves  from  outrage ; when  the 
manners  were  harsh,  the  language  gross  ; when  all  the 
softer  social  sentiments,  as  pity,  reverence,  tenderness, 
found  no  resting-place  in  the  actual  relations  of  life ; 
when  for  the  higher  ranks  there  was  only  the  fierce  ex- 
citement of  war,  and  on  the  humbler  classes  lay  the 
weary,  dreary  monotony  of  a stagnant  existence,  poor 
in  pleasures  of  every  kind,  without  aim,  without  hope ; 
then  — wondrous  reaction  of  the  ineffaceable  instincts  of 
good  implanted  within  us  ! — arose  a literature  which 
reversed  the  outward  order  of  things,  which  asserted 
and  kept  alive  in  the  hearts  of  men  those  pure  principles 
of  Christianity  which  were  outraged  in  their  daily  ac- 
tions ; a literature  in  which  peace  was  represented  as 
better  than  war,  and  sufferance  more  dignified  than  re- 
sistance ; which  exhibited  poverty  and  toil  as  honor- 
able, and  charity  as  the  first  of  virtues  ; which  held  up 
to  imitation  and  emulation,  self-sacrifice  in  the  cause 
of  good  and  contempt  of  death  for  conscience’  sake  : a 
literature,  in  which  the  tenderness,  the  chastity,  the 
heroism  of  woman,  played  a conspicuous  part ; which 
distinctly  protested  against  slavery,  against  violence, 
against  impurity  in  word  and  deed ; which  refreshed 
the  fevered  and  darkened  spirit  with  images  of  moral 
beauty  and  truth  ; revealed  bright  glimpses  of  a better 
land,  where  <<the  wicked  cease  from  troubling,”  and 
brought  down  the  angels  of  God  with  shining  wings 
and  bearing  crowns  of  glory,  to  do  battle  with  -the 
demons  of  darkness,  to  catch  the  fleeting  soul  of  the 
triumphant  martyr,  and  carry  it  at  once  into  a paradise 
of  eternal  blessedness  and  peace  ! 

Now  the  Legendary  Art  of  the  three  centuries  which 


6 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


comprise  the  revival  of  learning  was,  as  I have  said, 
the  reflection  of  this  literature,  of  this  teaching.  Con- 
sidered in  this  point  of  view,  can  we  easily  overrate  its 
interest  and  importance  ? 

When,  after  the  long  period  of  darkness  which  fol- 
lowed upon  the  decline  of  the  Roman  Empire,  the  Eine 
Arts  began  to  revive,  the  first,  and  for  several  ages  the 
only,  impress  they  received  was  that  of  the  religious 
spirit  of  the  time.  Painting,  Sculpture,  Music,  and 
Architecture,  as  they  emerged  one  after  another  from 
the  formless  void,”  were  pressed  into  the  service  of 
the  Church.  But  it  is  a mistake  to  suppose  that  in 
adroitly  adapting  the  reviving  Arts  to  her  purposes,  in 
that  magnificent  spirit  of  calculation  which  at  all  times 
characterized  her,  the  Church  from  the  beginning  se- 
lected the  subjects,  or  dictated  the  use  that  was  to  be 
made  of  them.  We  find,  on  the  contrary,  edicts  and 
councils  repressing  tlie  popular  extravagances  in  this 
respect,  and  denouncing  those  apocryphal  versions  of 
sacred  events  and  traditions  which  had  become  the  de- 
light of  the  people.  But  vain  were  councils  and  edicts ; 
the  tide  was  too  strong  to  be  so  checked.  The  Church 
found  herself  obliged  to  accept  and  mould  to  her  own 
objects  the  exotic  elements  she  could  not  eradicate. 
She  absorbed,  so  to  speak,  the  evils  and  errors  she  could 
not  expel.  There  seems  to  have  been  at  this  time  a 
sort  of  compromise  between  the  popular  legends,  with 
all  their  wild  mixture  of  northern  and  classical  super- 
stitions, and  the  Church  legends  properly  so  called. 
The  first  great  object  to  which  reviving  Art  was  des- 
tined, was  to  render  the  Christian  places  of  worship  a 
theatre  of  instruction  and  improvement  for  the  people, 
to  attract  and  to  interest  them  by  representations  of 
scenes,  events,  and  personages,  already  so  familiar  as 
to  require  no  explanation,  appealing  at  once  to  their 
intelligence  and  their  sympathies  ; embodying  in  beau- 
tiful shapes  (beautiful  at  least  in  their  eyes)  associations 
and  feelings  and  memories  deep-rooted  in  their  very 


INTRODUCTION. 


7 


hearts,  and  which  had  influenced,  in  no  slight  degree, 
the  progress  of  civilization,  the  development  of  mind. 
Upon  these  creations  of  ancient  Art  we  cannot  look  as 
those  did  for  whom  they  were  created  ; we  cannot  anni- 
hilate the  centuries  which  lie  between  us  and  them ; we 
cannot,  in  simplicity  of  heart,  forget  the  artist  in  the 
image  he  has  placed  before  us,  nor  supply  what  may 
be  deficient  in  his  work,  through  a reverentially  excited 
fancy.  We  are  critical,  not  credulous.  We  no  longer 
accept  this  polytheistic  form  of  Christianity ; and  there 
is  little  danger,  I suppose,  of  our  falling  again  into  the 
strange  excesses  of  superstition  to  which  it  led.  But  if 
we  have  not  much  sympathy  with  modern  imitations 
of  Mediaeval  Art,  still  less  should  we  sympathize  with 
that  narrow  puritanical  jealousy  which  holds  the  monu- 
ments of  a real  and  earnest  faith  in  contempt.  All 
that  God  has  permitted  once  to  exist  in  the  past  should 
be  considered  as  the  possession  of  the  present ; sacred 
for  example  or  warning,  and  held  as  the  foundation  on 
which  to  build  up  what  is  better  and  purer.  It  should 
seem  an  established  fact,  that  all  revolutions  in  religion, 
in  government,  and  in  art,  which  begin  in  the  spirit  of 
scorn,  and  in  a sweeping  destruction  of  the  antecedent 
condition,  only  tend  to  a reaction.  Our  puritanical 
ancestors  chopped  off  the  heads  of  Madonnas  and 
Saints,  and  paid  vagabonds  to  smash  the  storied  win- 
dows of  our  cathedrals  ; — noWj  are  these  rejected  and 
outraged  shapes  of  beauty  coming  back  to  us,  or  are  we 
not  rather  going  back  to  them  ? As  a Protestant,  I 
might  fear  lest  in  doing  so  we  confound  the  eternal 
spirit  of  Christianity  with  the  mutable  forms  in  which 
it  has  deigned  to  speak  to  the  hearts  of  men,  forms 
which  must  of  necessity  vary  with  the  degree  of  social 
civilization,  and  bear  the  impress  of  the  feelings  and 
fashions  of  the  age  which  produced  them ; but  I must 
also  feel  that  we  ought  to  comprehend,  and  to  hold  in 
due  reverence,  that  which  has  once  been  consecrated  to 
holiest  aims,  which  has  shown  us  what  a magnificent 
use  has  been  made  of  Art,  and  how  it  may  still  be 


8 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


adapted  to  good  and  glorious  purposes,  if,  while  we  re- 
spect these  time-consecrated  images  and  types,  we  do 
not  allow  them  to  fetter  us,  but  trust  in  the  progressive 
spirit  of  Christianity  to  furnish  us  with  new  imperson- 
ations of  the  good,  new  combinations  of  the  beautiful. 
I hate  the  destructive  as  I revere  the  progressive  spirit. 
We  must  laugh  if  any  one  were  to  try  and  persuade  us 
that  the  sun  was  guided  along  his  blazing  path  by  a 
fair-haired  god  who  touched  a golden  lyre  ; but  shall 
we  therefore  cease  to  adore  in  the  Apollo  Belvedere  the 
majestic  symbol  of  light,  the  most  divine  impersonation 
of  intellectual  power  and  beauty  ? So  of  the  corre- 
sponding Christian  symbols  : — may  that  time  never 
come,  when  we  shall  look  up  to  the  effigy  of  the  winged 
and  radiant  angel  trampling  down  the  brute-fiend,  with- 
out a glow  of  faith  in  the  perpetual  supremacy  and  final 
triumph  of  good  over  evil ! 

It  is  about  a hundred  years  since  the  passion,  or  the 
fashion,  for  collecting  works  of  Art,  began  to  be  gener- 
ally diffused  among  the  rich  and  the  noble  of  this  land ; 
and  it  is  amusing  to  look  back  and  to  consider  the  per- 
versions and  affectations  of  the  would-be  connoisseurship 
during  this  period ; — the  very  small  stock  of  ideas  on 
which  people  set  up  a pretension  to  taste,  — the  false 
notions,  the  mixture  of  pedantry  and  ignorance,  which 
everywhere  prevailed.  The  publication  of  Richardson’s 
book,  and  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds’s  Discourses,  had  this 
advantage,  — that  they,  to  a certain  degree,  diffused  a 
more  elevated  idea  of  Art  as  Art,  and  that  they  placed 
connoisseurship  on  a better  and  truer  basis.  In  those 
days  we  had  Inquiries  into  the  Principles  of  Taste, 
Treatises  on  the  Sublime  and  Beautiful,  Anecdotes  of 
Painting  ; and  we  abounded  in  Antiquarian  Essays  on 
disputed  Pictures  and  mutilated  Statues  : but  then,  and 
up  to  a late  period,  any  inquiry  into  the  true  spirit  and 
significance  of  works  of  Art,  as  connected  with  the  his- 
tory of  Religion  and  Civilization,  would  have  appeared 
ridiculous  — or  perhaps  dangerous  : — we  should  have 


INTRODUCTION, 


9 


had  another  cry  of  No  Popery/^  and  acts  of  Par- 
liament forbidding  the  importation  of  Saints  and  Ma- 
donnas. It  was  fortunate,  perhaps,  that  connoisseurs 
meddled  not  with  such  high  matters.  They  talked  vol- 
ubly and  harmlessly  of  hands,^^  and  masters,”  and 

schools,”  — of  draperies,”  of  tints,”  of  hand- 
ling,” — of  fine  heads,”  fine  compositions  ” ; of  the 
**  grace  of  Raphael,”  and  of  the  ‘‘  Correggiosity  of 
Correggio.”  The  very  manner  in  which  the  names  of 
the  painters  were  pedantically  used,  instead  of  the  name 
of  the  subject,  is  indicative  of  this  factitious  feeling ; 
the  only  question  at  issue  was,  whether  such  a pic- 
ture was  a genuine  Raphael  ” ? such  another  a gen- 
uine Titian  ” ? The  spirit  of  the  work  — whether 
that  was  genuine;  how  far  it  was  influenced  by  the 
faith  and  the  condition  of  the  age  which  produced  it ; 
whether  the  conception  was  properly  characteristic,  and 
of  what  it  was  characteristic  — of  the  subject  ? or  of  the 
school  ? or  of  the  time  ? — whether  the  treatment  cor- 
responded to  the  idea  within  our  own  souls,  or  was 
modified  by  the  individuality  of  the  artist,  or  by  re- 
ceived conventionalisms  of  all  kinds  ? — these  were 
questions  which  had  not  then  occurred  to  any  one  ; and 
I am  not  sure  that  we  are  much  wiser  even  now : yet, 
setting  aside  all  higher  considerations,  how  can  we  do 
common  justice  to  the  artist,  unless  we  can  bring  his 
work  to  the  test  of  truth  ? and  how  can  we  do  this,  un- 
less we  know  what  to  look  for,  what  was  intended  as  to 
incident,  expression,  character '?  One  result  of  our 
ignorance  has  been  the  admiration  wasted  on  the  flimsy 
mannerists  of  the  later  ages  of  Art ; men  who  apparently 
had  no  definite  intention  in  anything  they  did,  except  a 
dashing  outline,  or  a delicate  finish,  or  a striking  and 
attractive  management  of  color. 

It  is  curious,  this  general  ignorance  with  regard  to 
the  subjects  of  Mediaeval  Art,  more  particularly  now  that 
it  has  become  a reigning  fashion  among  us.  We  find 
no  such  ignorance  with  regard  to  the  subjects  of  Clas- 


lO 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


sical  Art,  because  the  associations  connected  with  them 
form  a part  of  every  liberal  education.  Po  we  hear 
any  one  say,  in  looking  at  Annibal  Caracci’s  picture  in 
the  National  Gallery,  Which  is  Silenus,  and  which  is 
Apollo  ? Who  ever  confounds  a Venus  with  a Mi- 
nerva, or  a Vestal  with  an  Amazon  ; or  would  endure 
an  undraped  Juno,  or  a beardless  Jupiter  1 Even  the 
gardener  in  Zeluco  knew  Neptune  by  his  fork,”  and 
Vulcan  by  his  lame  leg.”  We  are  indeed  so  accus- 
tomed, in  visiting  the  churches  and  the  galleries  abroad, 
and  the  collections  at  home,  to  the  predominance  of 
sacred  subjects,  that  it  has  become  a mere  matter  of 
course,  and  excites  no  particular  interest  and  attention. 
We  have  heard  it  all  accounted  for  by  the  fact  that  the 
Church  and  churchmen  were  the  first,  and  for  a long 
time  the  only,  patrons  of  art.  In  every  sacred  edifice, 
and  in  every  public  or  private  collection  enriched  from 
the  plunder  of  sacred  edifices,  we  look  for  the  usual 
proportion  of  melancholy  martyrdoms  and  fictitious 
miracles,  — for  the  predominance  of  Madonnas  and 
Magdalenes,  St.  Catherines  and  St.  Jeromes  : but  why 
these  should  predominate,  why  certain  events  and  char- 
acters from  the  Old  and  the  New  Testament  should  be 
continually  repeated,  and  others  comparatively  neg- 
lected ; whence  the  predilection  for  certain  legendary 
personages,  wIk)  seemed  to  be  multiplied  to  infinity, 
and  the  rarity  of  others  ; — of  this  we  know  nothing. 

We  have  learned,  perhaps,  after  running  through 
half  the  galleries  and  churches  in  Europe,  to  distinguish 
a few  of  the  attributes  and  characteristic  figures  which 
meet  us  at  every  turn,  yet  without  any  clear  idea  of 
their  meaning,  derivation,  or  relative  propriety.  The 
palm  of  victory,  we  know,  designates  the  martyr  tri- 
umphant in  death.  We  so  far  emulate  the  critical 
sagacity  of  the  gardener  in  Zeluco  that  we  have  learned 
to  distinguish  St.  Laurence  by  his  gridiron,  and  St. 
Catherine  by  her  wheel.  We  are  not  at  a loss  to  rec- 
ognize the  Magdalene's  loose  hair  and  lifted  eye,” 
even  when  without  her  skull  and  her  vase  of  ointment. 


INTRODUCTION, 


II 


We  learn  to  know  St.  Francis  by  his  bro^vn  habit  and 
shaven  crown  and  wasted,  ardent  features ; but  how  do 
we  distinguish  him  from  St.  Anthony,  or  St.  Dominick? 
As  for  St.  George  and  the  dragon,  — from  the  St. 
George  of  the  Louvre,  — KaphaeFs,  — who  sits  his 
horse  with  the  elegant  tranquillity  of  one  assured  of 
celestial  aid,  down  to  him  who  swings  on  assign-post 
at  mine  hostess’s  door,”  — he  is  our  familiar  acquaint- 
ance. But  who  is  that  lovely  being  in  the  first  blush 
of  youth,  who,  bearing  aloft  the  symbolic  cross,  stands 
with  one  foot  on  the  vanquished  dragon  ? That  is  a 
copy  after  Kaphael.”  And  who  is  that  majestic  crea- 
ture holding  her  palm-branch,  while  the  unicorn 
crouches  at  her  feet  ? <<  That  is  the  famous  Moretto 

at  Vienna.”  Are  we  satisfied  ? — not  in  the  least ! but 
we  try  to  look  wiser,  and  pass  on. 

In  the  old  times  the  painters  of  these  legendary  scenes 
and  subjects  could  always  reckon  securely  on  certain 
associations  and  certain  sympathies  in  the  minds  of 
the  spectators.  We  have  outgrown  these  associations, 
we  repudiate  these  sympathies.  We  have  taken  these 
works  from  their  consecrated  localities,  in  which  they 
once  held  each  their  dedicated  place,  and  we  have  hung 
them  in  our  drawing-rooms  and  our  dressing-rooms, 
over  our  pianos  and  our  side-boards,  — and  now  what 
do  they  say  to  us  ? That  Magdalene,  weeping  amid 
her  hair,  who  once  spoke  comfort  to  the  soul  of  the 
fallen  sinner,  — that  Sebastian,  arrow-pierced,  whose 
upward,  ardent  glance  spoke  of  courage  and  hope  to  the 
tyrant-ridden  serf,  — that  poor  tortured  slave,  to  whose 
aid  St.  Mark  comes  sweeping  down  from  above,  — can 
they  speak  to  us  of  nothing  save  fiowing  lines  and  cor- 
rect drawing  and  gorgeous  color  ? must  we  be  told  that 
one  is  a Titian,  the  other  a Guido,  the  third  a Tintoret, 
before  we  dare  to  melt  in  compassion  or  admiration  ? — 
or  the  moment  we  refer  to  their  ancient  religious  sig- 
nification and  infiuence,  must  it  be  with  disdain  or  with 
pity  ? This,  as  it  appears  to  me,  is  to  take  not  a ra- 


12 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


tional,  but  rather  a most  irrational  as  well  as  a most 
irreverent,  view  of  the  question ; it  is  to  confine  the 
pleasure  and  improvement  to  be  derived  from  works  of 
Art  within  very  narrow  bounds  ; it  is  to  seal  up  a foun- 
tain of  the  richest  poetry,  and  to  shut  out  a thousand 
ennobling  and  inspiring  thoughts.  Happily  there  is  a 
growing  appreciation  of  these  larger  principles  of  criti- 
cism as  applied  to  the  study  of  Art.  People  look  at  the 
pictures  which  hang  round  their  walls,  and  have  an 
awakening  suspicion  that  there  is  more  in  them  than 
meets  the  eye,  — more  than  mere  connoisseurship  can 
interpret ; and  that  they  have  another,  a deeper,  sig- 
nificance than  has  been  dreamed  of  by  picture  dealers 
and  picture  collectors,  or  even  picture  critics. 


II.  Of  the  Distinction  to  be  drawn  between 
THE  Devotional  and  the  Historical  Sub- 
jects. 

At  first,  when  entering  on  a subject  so  boundless  and 
BO  diversified,  we  are  at  a loss  for  some  leading  classi- 
fication which  shall  be  distinct  and  intelligible,  without 
being  mechanical.  It  appears  to  me,  that  all  sacred 
representations,  in  as  far  as  they  appeal  to  sentiment 
and  imagination,  resolve  themselves  into  two  great 
classes,  which  I shall  call  the  devotional  and  the 
historical. 

Devotional  pictures  are  those  which  portray  the  ob- 
jects of  our  veneration  with  reference  only  to  their  sacred 
character,  whether  standing  singly  or  in  company  with 
others.  They  place  before  us  no  action  or  event,  real 
or  supposed.  They  are  neither  portrait  nor  history. 
A group  of  sacred  personages,  where  no  action  is  repre- 
sented, is  called  in  Italian  a sacra  conversazione^^ : the 
word  conversazione^  which  signifies  a society  in  which 
there  is  communion,  being  here,  as  it  appears  to  me, 
used  with  peculiar  propriety.  All  subjects,  then,  which 
exhibit  to  us  sacred  personages,  alone  or  in  groups, 


INTRODUCTION, 


13 

simply  in  the  character  of  superior  beings,  must  be  con- 
sidered as  devotionally  treated. 

But  a sacred  subject,  without  losing  wholly  its  relig- 
ious import,  becomes  historical  the  moment  it  repre- 
sents any  story,  incident,  or  action,  real  or  imagined. 
All  pictures  which  exhibit  the  events  of  Scripture  story, 
all  those  which  express  the  actions,  miracles,  and  mar- 
tyrdoms of  saints,  come  under  this  class ; and  to  this 
distinction  I must  call  the  attention  of  the  reader,  re- 
questing that  it  may  be  borne  in  mind  throughout  this 
work. 

We  must  also  recollect  that  a story,  action,  or  fact 
may  be  so  represented  as  to  become  a symbol  expressive 
of  an  abstract  idea : and  some  Scriptural  and  some  leg- 
endary subjects  may  be  devotional  or  historical,  accord- 
ing to  the  sentiment  conveyed ; for  example,  the  Cruci- 
fixion and  the  Last  Supper  may  be  so  represented  as 
either  to  exhibit  an  event  or  to  express  a symbol  of 
our  Kedemption.  The  raising  of  Lazarus  exhibits,  in 
the  catacombs,  a mystical  emblem  of  the  general  resur- 
rection ; in  the  grand  picture  by  Sebastian  del  Piornbo, 
in  our  National  Gallery,  it  is  a scene  from  the  life  of 
our  Saviour.  Among  the  legendary  subjects,  the  pen- 
ance of  the  Magdalene,  and  St.  Martin  dividing  his 
cloak,  may  be  merely  incidents,  or  they  may  be  sym- 
bolical, the  first  of  penitence,  the  latter  of  charity,  in 
the  general  sense.  And,  again,  there  are  some  sub- 
jects which,  though  expressing  a scene  or  an  action, 
are  wholly  mystical  and  devotional  in  their  import ; 
as  the  vision  of  St.  Augustine  and  the  marriage  of  St. 
Catherine. 

Among  the  grandest  of  the  devotional  subjects,  we 
may  reckon  those  compositions  which  represent  the 
whole  celestial  hierarchy  ; the  divine  personages  of  the 
Trinity,  the  angels  and  archangels,  and  the  beatified 
spirits  of  the  just.  Such  is  the  subject  called  the  Para- 
diso,’"  so  often  met  with  in  pictures  and  ecclesiastical 
decoration,  where  Christ  is  enthroned  in  glory : such 


14 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


is  also  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  that  ancient  and 
popular  symbol  of  the  triumph  of  Keligion  or  the 
Church;  the  Adoration  of  the  Lamb;  and  the  Last 
Judgment,  from  the  Apocalypse.  The  order  of  pre- 
cedence in  these  sacred  assemblages  was  early  settled 
by  ecclesiastical  authority,  and  was  almost  as  absolute 
as  that  of  a modern  code  of  honor.  First  after  the 
Trinity,  the  Virgin  Mary,  as  Regina  Angelorum,  and 
St.  John  the  Baptist : then,  in  order,  the  Evangelists ; 
the  Patriarchs ; the  Prophets ; the  Apostles ; the  Fa- 
thers ; the  Bishops ; the  Martyrs ; the  Hermits ; the 
Virgins  ; the  Monks,  Nuns,  and  Confessors. 

As  examples,  I may  cite  the  Paradiso  of  Angelico, 
in  the  Florence  Academy ; the  Coronation  of  the  Vir- 
gin by  Hans  Hemling,  in  the  Wallerstein  collection, 
which  contains  not  less  than  fifty-two  figures,  all  indi- 
vidualized with  their  proper  attributes  ; and  which,  if  it 
were  possible,  should  be  considered  in  contrast  with  the 
Coronation  by  Angelico.  The  Flemish  painter  seems 
to  have  carried  his  intense  impression  of  earthly  and 
individual  life  into  the  regions  of  heaven ; the  Italian, 
through  a purer  inspiration,  seems  to  have  brought  all 
Paradise  down  before  us  upon  earth.  In  the  Adora- 
tion of  the  Lamb  by  Van  Eyck,  there  are  not  fewer 
than  two  hundred  figures.  For  the  Last  Judgment, 
the  grand  compositions  of  Orcagna  in  the  Campo 
Santo,  — of  Luca  Signorelli  and  Angelico  at  Orvieto, 
— and  the  fresco  of  Michael  Angelo  in  the  Sistine 
Chapel,  may  be  consulted. 

Where  the  usual  order  is  varied,  there  is  generally 
some  reason  for  it ; for  instance,  in  the  exaltation  of  a 
favorite  saint,  as  we  sometimes  find  St.  Dominick  and 
St.  Francis  by  the  side  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul : and 
among  the  miniatures  of  that  extraordinary  MS.,  the 
Hortus  Deliciarum,  now  at  Strasbourg,  painted  for  a 
virgin  abbess,  there  is  a Paradiso  ” in  whicli  the 
painter,  either  by  her  command  or  in  compliment 
to  her,  has  placed  the  virgins  immediately  after  the 
angels. 


INTRODUCTION, 


15 


The  representation  of  the  Virgin  and  Child  with 
saints  grouped  around  them,  is  a devotional  subject 
familiar  to  us  from  its  constant  recurrence.  It  also 
frequently  happens  that  the  tutelary  saint  of  the  local- 
ity, or  the  patron  saint  of  the  votary,  is  represented  as 
seated  on  a raised  throne  in  the  centre ; and  other  saints, 
though  under  every  other  circumstance  taking  a supe- 
rior rank,  become  here  accessaries,  and  are  placed  on 
each  side  or  lower  down  in  the  picture  : for  example, 
where  St.  Augustine  is  enthroned,  and  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  stand  on  each  side,  as  in  a picture  by  B.  Vi- 
varini,^  or  where  St.  Barbara  is  enthroned,  and  Mary 
Magdalene  and  St.  Catherine  stand  on  each  side,  as  in 
a picture  by  Matteo  di  Siena.f 

In  such  pictures,  the  votary  or  donor  is  often  intro- 
duced kneeling  at  the  feet  of  his  patron,  either  alone  or 
accompanied  by  his  wife  and  other  members  of  his 
family  : and,  to  express  the  excess  of  his  humility,  he 
is  sometimes  so  diminutive  in  proportion  to  the  colos- 
sal object  of  his  veneration,  as  to  be  almost  lost  to 
sight ; we  have  frequent  examples  of  this  naivete  of  sen- 
timent in  the  old  mosaics  and  votive  altar-pieces ; for 
instance,  in  a beautiful  old  fresco  at  Assisi,  where  the 
Magdalene,  a majestic  figure  about  six  feet  high,  holds 
out  her  hand  in  benediction  to  a little  Franciscan  friar 
about  a foot  in  height : but  it  was  abandoned  as  bar- 
barous in  the  later  schools  of  Art,  and  the  votary,  when 
retained,  appears  of  the  natural  size  ; as  in  the  Madonna 
del  Donatore  of  Raphael,^  where  Sigismond  Conti  is 
almost  the  finest  and  most  striking  part  of  that  inesti- 
mable picture  : and  in  the  Madonna  of  the  Meyer  family 
by  Holbein.§ 

When  a bishop  is  introduced  into  a group  of  saints 
kneeling,  while  all  the  others  are  standing,  he  may  be 
supposed  to  be  the  Donatore  or  DivotOy  the  person  who 
presents  the  picture.  When  he  is  standing,  he  is  one 
of  the  bishop-patrons  or  bishop-martyrs,  of  whom  there 

* Venice  *,  SS.  Giovanni  e Paolo.  | Rome  ; Vatican. 

t Siena  j San  Dominico.  § Dresden  Gal. 


i6 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


are  some  hundreds,  and  who  are  more  difficult  to  dis- 
criminate than  any  other  pictured  saints. 

And  this  leads  me  to  the  subject  of  the  so-called  an- 
achronisms in  devotional  subjects,  where  personages  who 
lived  at  different  and  distant  periods  of  time  are  found 
grouped  together.  It  is  curious  to  find  the  critics  of 
the  last  century  treating  with  pity  and  ridicule,  as  the 
result  of  ignorance  or  a barbarous  unformed  taste,  the 
noblest  and  most  spiritual  conceptions  of  poetic  art. 
Even  Sir  Joshua  Reynolds  had  so  little  idea  of  the  true 
object  and  feeling  of  such  representations,  that  he  thinks 
it  necessary  to  apologize  for  the  error  of  the  painter,  or 
the  mistaken  piety  of  his  employer.  We  must  remem- 
ber that  the  personages  here  brought  together  in  their 
sacred  character  belong  no  more  to  our  earth,  but  to 
heaven  and  eternity  : for  them  there  is  no  longer  time 
or  place  ; they  are  here  assembled  together  in  the  per- 
petual communion  of  saints,’^  — immortal  contem- 
poraries in  that  kingdom  where  the  Angel  of  the  Apoc- 
alypse proclaimed  that  there  should  be  time  no 
longer.” 

Suph  groups  are  sometimes  arranged  with  an  artless 
solemnity,  all  the  personages  standing  and  looking 
straight  out  of  the  picture  at  the  worshipper.  Some- 
times there  is  a touch  of  dramatic  sentiment,  which, 
without  interfering  with  the  solemn  devotional  feeling, 
lights  up  the  whole  with  the  charm  of  a purpose  : as  in 
the  Correggio  at  Parma,  where  St.  Jerome  presents  his 
translation  of  the  Scriptures  to  the  infant  Christ,  while 
an  angel  turns  the  leaves,  and  Mary  Magdalene,  sym- 
bol of  redemption  and  reconciliation,  bends  to  kiss  the 
feet  of  the  Saviour. 

Our  ancestors  of  the  middle  ages  were  not  particular 
in  drawing  that  strong  line  of  demarcation  between 
the  classical,  Jewish,  and  Christian  periods  of  history, 
that  we  do.  They  saw  only  Christendom  everywhere  ; 
they  regarded  the  past  only  in  relation  to  Christianity. 


INTRODUCTION, 


17 


Hence  we  find  in  the  early  ecclesiastical  monuments 
and  edifices  such  a strange  assemblage  of  pagan,  Scrip- 
tural, and  Christian  worthies;  as,  Hector  of  Troy, 
Alexander  the  Great,  King  David,  Judas  Maccabeus, 
Ejng  Arthur,  St.  George,  Godfrey  of  Boulogne,  Lu- 
cretia,  Virginia,  Judith,  St.  Elizabeth,  St.  Bridget  (as 
in  the  Cross  of  Nuremberg).  In  the  curious  Manual 
of  Greek  Art,  published  by  Didron,  we  find  the  Greek 
philosophers  and  poets  entering  into  a scheme  of  eccle- 
siastical decoration,  as  in  the  carved  stalls  in  the  Cathe- 
dral of  Ulm,  where  Solon,  Apollonius,  Plutarch,  Plato, 
Sophocles,  are  represented,  holding  each  a scroll,  on 
which  is  inscribed  a passage  from  their  works,  inter- 
preted into  an  allusion  to  the  coming  of  Christ : and  I 
have  seen  a picture  of  the  Nativity  in  which  the  sibyls 
are  dancing  hand-in-hand  around  the  cradle  of  the  new- 
born Saviour.  This  may  appear  profane  to  some,  but 
the  comprehension  of  the  whole  universe  within  the 
pale  of  Christianity  strikes  me  as  being  in  the  most 
catholic,  as  well  as  in  the  most  poetical,  spirit. 

It  is  in  devotional  subjects  that  we  commonly  find 
those  anthropomorphic  representations  of  the  Divinity 
which  shock  devout  people ; and  which  no  excuse  or 
argument  can  render  endurable  to  those  who  see  in  them 
only  ignorant  irreverence,  or  intentional  profaneness. 
It  might  be  pleaded  that  the  profaneness  is  not  inten- 
tional ; that  emblems  and  forms  are,  in  the  imitative 
arts,  what  figures  of  speech  are  in  language  ; that  only 
through  a figure  of  speech  can  any  attempt  be  made  to 
place  the  idea  of  Almighty  Power  before  us.  Familiar 
expressions,  consecrated  by  Scripture  usage,  represent 
the  Deity  as  reposing,  waking,  stretching  forth  his 
hand,  sitting  on  a throne ; as  pleased,  angry,  vengeful, 
repentant ; and  the  ancient  painters,  speaking  the  lan- 
guage proper  to  their  art,  appear  to  have  turned  these 
emblematical  words  into  emblematical  pictures.  I for- 
bear to  say  more  on  this  point,  because  I have  taken 
throughout  the  poetical  and  not  the  religious  view  of 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


I8 

Art,  and  this  is  an  objection  which  must  be  left,  as  a 
matter  of  feeling,  to  the  amount  of  candor  and  knowl- 
edge in  the  critical  reader. 

In  the  sacred  subjects,  properly  called  historical, 
we  must  be  careful  to  distinguish  between  those  which 
are  Scriptural,  representing  scenes  from  the  Old  or  New 
Testament,  and  those  which  are  Legendary. 

Of  the  first,  for  the  present,  I do  not  speak,  as  they 
will  be  fully  treated  hereafter. 

The  historical  subjects  from  the  lives  of  the  saints 
consist  principally  of  Miracles  and  Martyrdoms. 

In  the  first,  it  is  worth  remarking  that  we  have  no 
pictured  miracle  which  is  not  imitated  from  the  Old  or 
the  New  Testament  (unless  it  be  an  obvious  emblem, 
as  where  the  saint  carries  his  own  head).  There  is  no 
act  of  supernatural  power  related  of  any  saint  which  is 
not  recorded  of  some  great  Scriptural  personage.  The 
object  was  to  represent  the  favorite  patron  as  a copy  of 
the  great  universal  type  of  beneficence,  Christ  our 
Redeemer.  And  they  were  not  satisfied  that  the  re- 
semblance should  lie  in  character  only ; but  should 
emulate  the  power  of  Christ  in  his  visible  actions.  We 
must  remember  that  the  common  people  of  the  middle 
ages  did  not,  and  could  not,  distinguish  between  mira- 
cles accredited  by  the  testimony  of  Scripture,  and  those 
which  were  fabrications,  or  at  least  exaggerations.  All 
miracles  related  as  divine  interpositions  were  to  them 
equally  possible,  equally  credible.  If  a more  extended 
knowledge  of  the  natural  laws  renders  us  in  these  days 
less  credulous,  it  also  shows  us  that  many  things  were 
possible,  under  particular  conditions,  which  were  long 
deemed  supernatural. 

We  find  in  the  legendary  pictures  that  the  birth  of 
several  saints  is  announced  by  an  angel,  or  in  a dream, 
as  in  the  stories  of  St.  Catherine,  St.  Roch,  &c.  They 
exhibit  precocious  piety  and  wisdom,  as  in  the  story  of 
St.  Nicholas,  who  also  calms  a tempest,  and  guides  the 


INTRODUCTION. 


19 


Storm-tossed  vessel  safe  to  land.  They  walk  on  the 
water,  as  in  the  stories  of  St.  Eaymond  and  St.  Hy- 
acinth ; or  a river  divides,  to  let  them  pass,  as  in  the 
story  of  St.  Alban.  Saints  are  fed  and  comforted  mirac- 
ulously, or  delivered  from  prison  by  angels ; or  resist 
fire,  like  the  Three  Children.^'  The  multiplication 
of  bread,  and  the  transformation  of  water  into  wine, 
are  standing  miracles.  But  those  which  most  frequently 
occur  in  pictures,  are  the  healing  of  the  sick,  the  lame, 
the  blind ; the  casting  out  of  demons,  the  restoration 
of  the  dead,  or  some  other  manifestation  of  compassion- 
ate and  beneficent  power. 

Some  of  the  pictured  legends  are  partly  Scriptural, 
partly  historical,  as  the  story  of  St.  Peter ; others  are 
clearly  religious  apologues  founded  on  fact  or  tradition, 
as  those  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt  and  St.  Christopher ; 
others  are  obviously  and  purely  allegorical,  as  the 
Greek  story  of  St.  Sophia  (i.  e.  Heavenly  Wisdom, 
20<I»IA)  and  her  celestial  progeny,  St.  Faith,  St.  Hope, 
and  St.  Charity,  all  martyred  by  the  blind  and  cruel 
pagans.  The  names  sound  as  if  borrowed  from  the 
Pilgrim’s  Progress ; and  it  is  curious  to  find  Bunyan’s 
allegorical  legend,  the  favorite  picture-book  of  the  peo- 
ple, appearing  just  at  the  time  when  the  legends  and 
pictures  of  the  saints  became  objects  of  puritanical 
horror,  and  supplying  their  place  in  the  popular  imagi- 
nation. 

Martyrdoms  are  only  too  common  : they  present  to 
us  Christianity  under  its  most  mystical  aspect,  — the 
deification  of  suffering ; but  to  render  these  represen- 
tations effective,  they  should  be  pathetic  without  being 
terrible,  they  should  speak  to  us 

“ Of  melancholy  fear  subdued  by  faith, 

Of  blessed  consolations  in  distress  ” j 

but  not  of  the  horrid  cruelty  of  man  towards  man.  It 
has  been  well  remarked  by  my  friend  M.  Rio  (to  whose 
charming  and  eloquent  exposition  of  Christian  Art  I 


20 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


refer  with  ever-new  delight),  that  the  early  painters  of 
Western  Christendom  avoided  these  subjects,  and  that 
their  prevalence  in  ecclesiastical  decoration  marked  the 
decline  of  religious  feeling,  and  the  degeneracy  of  Art. 
But  this  remark  does  not  apply  to  Byzantine  Art ; for 
we  find  from  the  exact  description  of  a picture  of  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Euphemia  (both  the  picture  and  the 
description  dating  from  the  third  century),  that  such  rep- 
resentations were  then  common,  and  were  appealed  to 
in  the  same  manner  as  now,  to  excite  the  feelings  of 
the  people. 

The  mart3Tdoms  generally  met  with  are  those  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  St.  Stephen  Protomartyr,  St. 
Laurence,  St.  Catherine,  and  St.  Sebastian.  These  we 
find  everywhere,  in  all  countries  and  localities.  Where 
the  patron  of  the  church  or  chapel  is  a martyr,  his 
martyrdom  holds  a conspicuous  place,  often  over 
the  high  altar,  and  accompanied  by  all  the  moving 
circumstances  which  can  excite  the  pity  or  horror 
or  enthusiasm  of  the  pious  votaries ; but  in  the  best 
examples  we  find  the  saint  preparing  for  his  death, 
not  suffering  the  torments  actually  inflicted ; so  that 
the  mind  is  elevated  by  the  sentiment  of  his  courage, 
not  disturbed  and  disgusted  by  the  spectacle  of  his 
agonies. 


III.  Of  certain  Patron  Saints, 

Who  are  commonly  grouped  together  in  Works  of  Art^  or 
who  belong  to  particular  CountrieSy  Cities,  or  Local- 
ities. 

While  such  assemblages  of  holy  persons  as  are 
found  grouped  together  in  devotional  pictures  are  to  be 
considered  as  quite  independent  of  chronology,  we  shall 
find  that  the  selection  has  been  neither  capricious  nor 
arbitrary,  and,  with  a little  consideration,  we  shall  dis- 
cover the  leading  idea  in  the  mind  of  the  artist,  — that, 


INTRODUCTION. 


21 


at  least,  which  was  intended  to  be  conveyed  to  the 
mind  of  the  spectator,  and  which  was  much  more  intel- 
ligible in  former  times  than  it  is  now. 

Sometimes  we  find  certain  saints  placed  in  com- 
panionship, because  they  are  the  joint  patrons  and  pro- 
tectors of  the  city  or  locality  for  which  the  picture  was 
painted.  Thus  in  the  Bologna  pictures  we  constantly 
find  the  bishop  St.  Petronius,  St.  Eloy,  St.  Dominick, 
and  the  warrior  St.  Proculus  ; while  in  the  Venetian 
pictures  we  have  perpetual  St.  Marks,  St.  Georges,  and 
St.  Catherines. 

Or,  secondly,  they  are  connected  by  kindred  powers 
and  attributes.  Thus  we  find  St.  Sebastian,  the  patron 
against  pestilence,  in  company  with  St.  Roch,  who  min- 
istered to  the  sick  of  the  plague.  Thus  St.  Catherine 
and  St.  Jerome,  the  two  patrons  of  school  theology,  are 
often  found  in  companionship.  Where  St.  Catherine 
and  St.  Barbara  are  found  together,  the  first  figures  as 
patroness  of  the  ecclesiastical,  and  the  second  of  the 
military,  power,  — or  they  represent  respectively  the 
contemplative  and  the  active  life. 

Or,  thirdly,  they  are  combined  in  the  fancy  by  some 
inevitable  association  ; as  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Stephen 
are  often  in  the  same  picture,  because  St.  Augustine 
dedicated  some  of  his  most  eloquent  works  to  the  glory 
of  the  martyr. 

Or  they  were  friends  on  earth,  for  which  reason  St. 
Cyprian  and  St.  Cornelius  are  placed  together. 

Or  their  relics  repose  in  the  same  spot ; whence  St. 
Stephen  and  St.  Laurence  have  become  almost  insepa- 
rable. When  St.  Vincent  and  St.  Laurence  are  placed 
together  (as  in  a lovely  composition  of  Parmigiano, 
where  they  sit  reading  out  of  the  same  book)  it  is  be- 
cause of  the  similarity  of  their  fate,  and  that  the  popular 
tradition  supposed  them  to  be  brothers. 

A point  of  more  general  importance,  and  capable  of 
more  definite  explanation,  is  the  predominance  of  cer- 
tain sacred  personages  in  particular  schools  of  Art. 


22 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


St.  Cosmo  and  St.  Damian,  for  instance,  are  perpetu^ 
ally  recurring  in  the  Florentine  pictures  as  the  patron 
saints  of  the  Medici  family.  In  the  Lombard  pictures 
St.  Ambrose  is  often  found  without  his  compeers,  — not 
as  doctor  of  the  Church,  but  as  bishop  of  Milan.  In 
the  Siena  pictures,  we  may  look  for  the  nun  St.  Cathe- 
rine of  Siena,  and  St.  Ansano,  the  apostle  of  the 
Sienese,  holding  his  banner  and  palm.  And  in  the 
Augustine  chapels  and  churches,  St.  Augustine  figures, 
not  as  doctor  of  the  Church,  but  as  patriarch  of  the 
Order. 

A bishop-martyr,  holding  his  palm,  and  not  other- 
wise designated  either  by  name  or  attribute,  would  be 
— in  one  of  Perugino's  pictures,  St.  Ercolano  or  St. 
Costanzo  ; in  a Florentine  picture,  St.  Donato  or  St. 
Komulo  ; if  the  picture  were  painted  in  the  March  of 
Ancona,  it  would  probably  be  St.  Apollinaris  of  Ka- 
venna  ; at  Naples  it  would  be  St.  Januarius  ; at  Paris, 
or  in  a picture  painted  for  a French  church,  of  which 
there  are  many  in  Italy,  it  would  be  St.  Denis  ; and  in 
German  prints,  St.  Boniface  or  St.  Lambert.  I need 
not  further  multiply  examples. 

If  the  locality  from  which  the  picture  came  will 
sometimes  determine  the  names  of  the  personages,  so 
the  personages  represented  will  often  explain  the  pur- 
pose and  intended  situation  of  the  picture.  There  is  in 
Lord  Ashburton^s  gallery  a noble  group  representing 
together  St.  Peter,  St.  Leonard,  St.  Martha,  and  Mary 
Magdalene.  Such  a combination  points  it  out  at  once 
as  intended  for  a charitable  institution,  and,  on  inquiry, 
we  find  that  it  was  painted  for  the  chapel  of  a brother- 
hood associated  to  redeem  prisoners,  to  ransom  slaves, 
to  work  for  the  poor,  and  to  convert  the  sinner  to 
repentance.  Many  such  interesting  and  instructive 
analogies  will  be  pointed  out  in  the  course  of  the  fol- 
lowing pages,  and  the  observer  of  works  of  art  will 
discover  others  for  himself. 

I add  here,  in  alphabetical  order,  those  countries  and 


INTRODUCTION. 


23 

localities  of  which  the  patron  saints  are  distinguished 
in  works  of  Art.^ 

Ancona:  St.  Cyriacns,  Bishop;  and  his  mother  Anna, 
Martyr. 

Arezzo  : St.  Donato,  Bishop. 

Asti,  Novara,  and  all  through  the  cities  of  Piedmont 
and  the  north  of  Italy,  we  find  the  Warrior^  St.  Maurice, 
and  his  companions  St.  Secundus,  St.  Alexander,  and  the 
other  Martyrs  of  the  Theban  Legion. 

Augsburg:  St.  Ulrich,  Bishop;  St.  Afra,  Martyr. 

Austria  : St.  Leopold,  St.  Stephen,  St.  Maximilian,  St. 
Coloman. 

Bamberg  : St.  Henry  and  St.  Cunegunda,  Emperor  and 
Empress. 

Barcelona:  St.  Eulalia,  Martyr.  (In  Spanish  pic- 
tures only.) 

Bavaria:  St.  George,  Martyr. 

Bergamo  : St.  Alexander,  Warrior ; St.  Grata,  Widow. 

Bohemia:  St.  John  Nepomuck,  Priest;  St.  Wences- 
laus.  King ; St.  Ludmilla,  Queen  ; St.  Vitus,  young  Mar- 
tyr; St.  Procopius,  Hermit. 

Bologna:  St.  Petronius,.  ; St.  Dominic,  Friar; 

St.  Proculus,  Warrior  Martyr ; St,  Eloy  (Eligio),  Bishop 
and  Smith. 

Brescia:  St.  Faustinus  and  Jovita;  St.  Julia,  St.  Afra, 
Martyrs. 

Bruges:  St.  John  the  Baptist. 

Burgundy  : St.  Andrew,  Apostle. 

Cologne  : The  Three  Kings ; St.  Ursula,  Virgin  Mar- 
tyr ; St.  Gereon,  Wan'ior  Martyr. 

Como:  St.  Abbondio,  Bishop. 

Cortona  : St.  Margaret,  Nun  and  Penitent. 

Cremona  : St.  Omobuono,  Secular  Habit. 

Ferrara:  St.  Geminiano,  Bishop ; St.  George,  Martyr; 
St.  Barbara,  Martyr. 

* The  Saints  who  do  not  appear  in  these  volumes  will  be  found 
in  the  “ Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders.” 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


24 

Fiesole:  St.  Romolo,  Bishop. 

Florence:  St.  John  the  Baptist;  St.  Zenobio,  St.  An- 
tonino,  Bishops;  St.  Reparata,  Virgin  Martyr ; St.  Cosmo 
and  Damian  (the  Apothecary  Saints,  especial  patrons  of 
the  Medici  family)  ; St.  Verdiana,  Nun;  St.  Miniato, 
Warrior. 

France:  St.  Michael,  Angel;  St.  Dionysius  (Denis), 
Bishop ; St.  Gen^vi^ve,  Virgin ; St.  Martin,  Bishop. 

Genoa:  St.  George,  St.  Laurence,  Martyrs. 

Ghent  : St.  Bavon,  Prince  and  Hermit. 

Grenoble  : St.  Hugh  the  Carthusian. 

Ireland:  St.  Patrick,  Bishop;  St.  Bridget,  Abbess. 

Lucca:  St.  Martin,  Bishop;  St.  Frediano,  ; St. 

Zita,  Virgin. 

Liege  : St.  Hubert,  Bishop  and  Huntsman  ; St.  Lambert, 
Bishop. 

Madrid:  St.  Isidore,  Laborer;  St.  Dominick,  Friar 
(Patron  of  the  Escurial,  St  Laurence). 

Mantua:  St.  Andrew;  St.  Barbara;  St.  George,  and 
St.  Longinus,  Warrior  Saints. 

Marseilles  and  all  Provence:  St.  Lazarus;  St.  Mary 
Magdalen;  St.  Martha;  St.  Marcella. 

Messina:  St.  Agatha,  Martyr. 

Milan:  St.  Ambrose,  Bishop  and  Doctor;  St.  Gerva- 
sius  and  St.  Protasius,  Martyrs ; St.  Maurice,  St.  Victor, 
Wamnors. 

Modena:  St.  Geminiano,  Bishop.  (In  pictures  of  the 
Correggio  school.) 

Naples:  St.  Januarius,  Martyr. 

Novara  : St.  Gaudenzio,  Bishop. 

Nuremburg  : St.  Laurence,  Martyr ; St.  Sebald,  Pil- 
grim and  Hermit.  (The  latter  an  important  person  in  pic- 
tures and  prints  of  the  Albert  Diirer  school.) 

Padua  : St.  Anthony  of  Padua,  Friar. 

Paris:  St.  G^n^vieve,  Virgin;  St.  Germain,  Bishop  i 
St.  Hippolitus,  Martyr. 

Parma:  St.  John,  B.;  St.  Thomas  the  Apostle;  St. 
Bernard,  Monk ; St.  Hilary  (Ilario),  Bishop. 


INTRODUCTION. 


25 

Perugia:  St.  Ercolano  and  St.  Costanzo,  Bishops. 

Piacenza  : St.  Justina,  Martyr ; St.  Antoninus,  TPar- 
rior  (Theban  Legion). 

Piedmont  and  Savoy  : St.  John,  B. ; St.  Maurice  and 
St.  George,  Warriors ; St.  Amadeus,  King. 

Pisa:  St.  Ranieri,  Hermit;  St.  Torpe,  Warrior;  St. 
Ephesus  and  St.  Potita,  Warriors.  (These  only  in  the 
ancient  Pisan  school.) 

Ravenna:  St.  Apollinaris,  Bishop. 

Rimini:  St.  Julian,  Martyr.  (A  young  saint,  popular 
all  through  the  north  and  down  the  east  coast  of  Italy.) 

Seville:  St.  Leander,  Bishop  ; St.  Justina,  St.  Rufina, 
Sisters  and  Martyrs.  (These  are  only  found  in  Spanish 
pictures.) 

Sicily:  St.  Vitus,  Martyr ; St.  Rosalia,  Recluse  (Pa- 
lermo); St.  Agatha  (Messina),  St.  Lucia  (Syracuse), 
Martyrs. 

Siena:  St.  Ansano,  Martyr;  St.  Catherine  of  Siena, 
Nun ; St.  Bernardino,  Friar. 

Thuringia  and  all  that  part  of  Saxony:  St.  Elizabeth 
of  Hungary;  St.  Boniface,  Bishop. 

Toledo:  St.  Ildefonso,  Bishop ; and  St.  Leocadia,  Mar- 
tyr.  (Only  in  Spanish  pictures.) 

Treviso:  St.  Liberale,  Warrior. 

Turin:  St.  John  the  Baptist;  St.  Maurice,  Warrior. 

Umbria  : All  through  this  region  and  the  eastern  coast 
of  Italy,  very  important  in  respect  to  art,  the  favorite 
Saints  are : St.  Nicholas,  Bishop ; St.  Francis  of  Assisi, 
Friar;  St.  Clara,  Nun;  St.  Julian,  Martyr;  and  St. 
Catherine,  Virgin  Martyr. 

Valencia:  St.  Vincent,  Martyr. 

Venice,  St.  Mark,  Apostle;  St.  George,  St.  Theodore, 
Warriors ; St.  Nicholas,  Bishop ; St.  Catherine,  St.  Chris- 
tina, Virgin  Martyrs. 

Vercelli:  St.  Eusebius,  / St.  Thronestus,  War- 

rior (Theban  Legion). 

Verona:  St.  Zeno,  Bishop;  St.  Fermo,  Martyr;  St. 
Euphemia,  Martyr. 


26 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


Votive  Pictures  are  those  which  have  been  dedi- 
cated in  certain  religious  edifices,  in  fulfilment  of  vows ; 
either  as  the  expression  of  thanksgiving  for  blessings 
which  have  been  vouchsafed,  or  propitiative  against 
calamities  to  be  averted.  The  far  greater  number  of 
these  pictures  commemorate  an  escape  from  danger, 
sickness,  death ; and  more  especially,  some  visitation 
of  the  plague,  that  terrible  and  frequent  scourge  of  the 
middle  ages.  The  significance  of  such  pictures  is  gen- 
erally indicated  by  the  presence  of  St.  Sebastian  or  St. 
Koch,  the  patrons  against  the  plague;  or  St.  Cosmo 
and  St.  Damian,  the  healing  and  medical  saints ; ac- 
companied by  the  patron  saints  of  the  country  or  local- 
ity, if  it  be  a public  act  of  devotion ; or,  if  dedicated 
by  private  or  individual  piety,  the  donor  kneels,  pre- 
sented by  his  own  patron  saint.  In  general,  though 
not  always,  this  expressive  group  is  arranged  in  at- 
tendance on  the  enthroned  Madonna  and  her  divine 
Son,  as  the  universal  protectors  from  all  evil.  Such 
pictures  are  among  the  most  interesting  and  remarka- 
ble of  the  works  of  Sacred  Art  which  remain  to  us, 
and  have  often  a pathetic  and  poetical  beauty,  and  an 
historical  significance,  which  it  is  a chief  purpose  of 
these  volumes  to  interpret  and  illustrate. 


lY.  Op  certain  Emblems  and  Attributes. 

To  know  something  of  the  attributes  and  emblems  of 
general  application,  as  well  as  those  proper  to  each 
saint,  is  absolutely  necessary ; but  it  will  also  greatly 
assist  the  fancy  and  the  memory  to  understand  their 
origin  and  significance.  Eor  this  reason  I will  add  a 
few  words  of  explanation. 

The  Glory,  Nimbus,  or  Aureole  — the  Christian 
attribute  of  sanctity,  and  used  generally  to  distinguish 
all  holy  personages  — is  of  pagan  origin.  It  expressed 


INTRODUCTION, 


27 


the  luminous  nebula  (Homer,  77.  xxiii.  205)  supposed  to 
emanate  from,  and  surround,  the  Divine  Essence,  which 
stood  a shade  in  midst  of  its  own  brightness.^^  Im- 
ages of  the  gods  were  decorated  with  a crown  of  rays, 
or  with  stars ; and  when  the  Roman  emperors  assumed 
the  honors  due  to  divinity,  they  appeared  in  public 
crowned  with  golden  radii.  The  colossal  statue  of 
Nero  wore  a circle  of  rays,  imitating  the  glory  of  the 
sun.  This  ornament  became  customary ; and  not  only 
the  first  Csesars,  but  the  Christian  emperors,  adopted 
the  same  divine  insignia ; and  it  became  at  length  so 
common  that  we  find  it  on  some  medals,  round  the 
heads  of  the  consuls  of  the  later  empire.  Considered 
in  the  East  as  the  attribute  of  power  onlyy  whether  good 
or  evil,  we  find,  wherever  early  Art  has  been  developed 
under  Byzantine  influences,  the  nimbus  thus  applied. 
Satan,  in  many  Greek,  Saxon,  and  French  miniatures, 
from  the  ninth  to  the  thirteenth  century,  wears  a glory. 
In  a psalter  of  the  twelfth  century,  the  Beast  of  the 
Apocalypse  with  seven  heads  has  six  heads  surrounded 
by  the  nimbus ; the  seventh,  wounded  and  drooping, 
is  without  the  sign  of  power. 

But  in  Western  Art  the  associations  with  this  attri- 
bute were  not  merely  those  of  dignity,  but  of  some- 
thing divine  and  consecrated.  It  was  for  a long  time 
avoided  in  the  Christian  representations  as  being  ap- 
propriated by  false  gods  or  heathen  pride ; and  w'hen 
first  adopted  does  not  seem  clear.^  The  earliest  exam- 
ple cited  is  a gem  of  St.  Martin,  of  the  early  part  of 
the  sixth  century,  in  which  the  glory  round  his  head 
seems  to  represent  his  apotheosis ; and  in  all  instanees 
it  is  evidently  intended  to  represent  divine  glory  and 
beatitude. 

The  glory  round  the  head  is  properly  the  nimbus  or 
aureole.  The  oblong  glory  surrounding  the  whole 
person,  called  in  Latin  the  vesica  piscis,  and  in  Italian, 

* “ Avant  le  5me  siecle  le  nimbe  Chretien  ne  se  voit  pas  sur  les 
Monuments  authentiques.^^  — Didron,  Iconographie,  p.  101. 


28 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


the  mandorla  (almond),  from  its  form,  is  confined  to 
figures  of  Christ  and  the  Virgin,  or  saints  who  are  in 
the  act  of  ascending  into  heaven.  When  used  to  dis- 
tinguish one  of  the  three  divine  persons  of  the  Trinity 
the  glory  is  often  cruciform  or  triangular.  The  square 
nimbus  designates  a person  living  at  the  time  the  work 
was  executed.  In  the  frescos  of  Giotto  at  Assisi  the 
allegorical  personages  are  in  some  instances  distin- 
guished by  the  hexagonal  nimbus.  In  other  instances 
it  is  circular.  From  the  fifth  to  the  twelfth  century 
the  nimbus  had  the  form  of  a disc  or  plate  over  the 
head.^  From  the  twelfth  to  the  fifteenth  century,  it 
was  a broad  golden  band  round,  or  rather  behind,  the 
head,  composed  of  circle  within  circle,  often  adorned 
with  precious  stones,  and  sometimes  having  the  name 
of  the  saint  inscribed  within  it.  From  the  fifteenth 
century  it  was  a bright  fillet  over  the  head,  and  in  the 
seventeenth  century  it  disappeared  altogether.  In  pic- 
tures the  glory  is  always  golden,  the  color  of  light ; in 
miniatures  and  stained  glass  I have  seen  glories  of  va- 
rious‘colors,  red,  blue,  or  green. f 

The  Fish  was  the  earliest,  the  most  universal,  of  the 
Christian  emblems,  partly  as  the  symbol  of  water  and 
the  rite  of  baptism,  and  also  because  the  five  Greek  let- 
ters which  express  the  word  Fish  form  the  anagram  of 

* A metal  circle,  like  a round  plate,  was  fastened  on  the  head 
of  those  statues  placed  in  the  open  air,  to  defend  them  from  the 
rain  or  dust.  Some  of  the  ancient  glories  are  very  like  those 
plates,  but  I do  not  think  they  are  derived  from  them. 

t I believe  these  colored  glories  to  be  symbolical,  but  am  not 
sure  of  the  application  of  the  colors.  Among  the  miniatures  of 
the  Hortus  Deliciarum^  painted  in  1180,  is  a representation  of 
the  celestial  paradise,  in  which  the  virgins,  the  apostles,  the 
martyrs,  and  confessors  wear  the  golden  nimbus  5 the  prophets 
and  the  patriarchs,  the  white  or  silver  nimbus  5 the  saints  who 
strove  with  temptation,  the  red  nimbus  ; those  who  were  married 
have  the  nimbus  green,  while  the  beatified  penitents  have  theirs 
of  a yellowish  white,  somewhat  shaded. — Didron, /conogrrajs/iie 
Chretienne^  p.  168. 


INTRODUCTION. 


29 

the  name  of  Jesus  Christ.  In  this  sense  we  find  the 
fish  as  a general  symbol  of  the  Christian  faith  upon 
the  sarcophagi  of  the  early  Christians ; on  the  tombs 
of  the  martyrs  in  the  catacombs  ; on  rings,  coins,  lamps, 
and  other  utensils  ; and  as  an  ornament  in  early  Chris- 
tian architecture.  It  is  usually  a dolphin,  which  among 
the  Pagans  had  also  a sacred  significance. 

The  passage  in  the  Gospel,  Follow  me,  and  I will 
make  ye  fishers  of  men,^^  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
the  use  of  this  symbol ; and  I may  observe  here,  that 
the  fish  placed  in  the  hands  of  St.  Peter  has  probably 
a double  or  treble  signification,  alluding  to  his  former 
occupation  as  a fisherman,  his  conversion  to  Chris- 
tianity, and  his  vocation  as  a Christian  apostle,  i.  e.  a 
fisher  of  men,  in  the  sense  used  by  Christ ; and  in  the 
same  sense  we  find  it  given  as  an  attribute  to  bishops 
who  were  famous  for  converting  and  baptizing,  as  St. 
Zeno  of  Verona,  and  Gregory  of  Tours. 


The  Cross.  — About  the  tenth  century  the  Fish  dis- 
appeared, and  the  Cross  — symbol  of  our  redemption, 
from  the  apostolic  times  — became  the  sole  and  univer- 
sal emblem  of  the  Christian  faith.  The  cross  placed 
in  the  hand  of  a saint  is  usually  the  Latin  cross  (1),  the 
form  ascribed  to  the  cross  on  which  our  Saviour  suf- 
fered. Other  crosses  are  used  as  emblems  or  ornaments, 
but  still  having  the  same  signification ; as  the  Greek 
cross  (2),  in  which  the  arms  are  all  of  the  same  length ; 


(1)  (2)  (3)  (4) 


the  transverse  cross,  on  which  St.  Andrew  is  supposed 
to  have  suffered,  in  this  form  (3) ; the  Egyptian  cross, 
sometimes  placed  in  the  hands  of  St.  Philip  the  apostle, 
and  it  was  also  the  form  of  the  crutch  of  St.  Anthony, 


30 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


and  embroidered  on  his  cope  or  robe,  — hence  it  is 
called  St.  Anthony^s  cross  (4).  There  is  also  the  Mal- 
tese cross,  and  various  ornamental  crosses.  The  double 
cross  on  the  top  of  a staff,  instead  of  the  crosier,  is 
borne  by  the  Pope  only ; the  staff  with  a single  cross, 
by  the  Greek  bishops. 

At  first  the  cross  was  a sign  only.  When  formed  of 
gold  or  silver,  the  five  wounds  of  Christ  were  signified 
by  a ruby  or  carbuncle  at  each  extremity,  and  one  in 
the  centre.  It  was  not  till  the  sixth  century  that  the 
cross  became  a Crucifix,  no  longer  an  emblem,  but 
an  image. 

The  Lamb,  in  Christian  Art,  is  the  peculiar  symbol 
of  the  Redeemer  as  the  sacrifice  without  blemish  : in 
this  sense  it  is  given  as  an  attribute  to  John  the  Baptist. 
The  lamb  is  also  the  general  emblem  of  innocence, 
meekness,  modesty ; in  this  sense  it  is  given  to  St. 
Agnes,  of  whom  Massillon  said  so  beautifully,  Peu 
de  pudeur,  ou  il  n^  a pas  de  religion ; peu  de  religion, 
ou  il  n’y  a pas  de  pudeur.'^ 

The  Pelican,  tearing  open  her  breast  to  feed  her 
young  with  her  own  blood,  was  an  early  symbol  of  our 
redemption  through  Christ. 

One  or  both  of  these  emblems  are  frequently  found 
in  ancient  crosses  and  crucifixes ; the  lamb  at  the  foot, 
the  pelican  at  the  top,  of  the  cross. 

The  Dragon  is  the  emblem  of  sin  in  general,  and  i 
of  the  sin  of  idolatry  in  particular;  and  the  dragon  slain 
or  vanquished  by  the  power  of  the  cross,  is  the  per- 
petually recurring  myth,  which,  varied  in  a thousand 
ways,  we  find  running  through  all  the  old  Christian 
legends  : not  subject  to  misapprehension  in  the  earliest 
times ; but,  as  the  cloud  of  ignorance  darkened  and 
deepened,  the  symbol  was  translated  into  a fact.  It 
has  been  suggested  that  the  dragon,  which  is  to  us  a 
phantasm  and  an  allegory,  which  in  the  middle  ages  was 


INTRODUCTION. 


31 


the  visible  shape  of  the  demon  adversary  of  all  truth  and 
goodness,  might  have  been,  as  regards  form,  originally 
a fact : for  wherever  we  have  dragon  legends,  whether 
the  scene  be  laid  in  Asia,  Africa,  or  Europe,  the  im- 
puted circumstances  and  the  form  are  little  varied. 
The  dragons  introduced  into  early  painting  and  sculp- 
ture so  invariably  represent  a gigantic  winged  crocodile, 
that  it  is  presumed  there  must  have  been  some  common 
origin  for  the  type  chosen  as  if  by  common  consent ; 
and  that  this  common  type  may  have  been  some  fossil 
remains  of  the  Saurian  species,  or  even  some  far-off 
dim  tradition  of  one  of  these  tremendous  reptiles  sur- 
viving in  Heaven  knows  what  vast  desolate  morass  or 
inland  lake,  and  spreading  horror  and  devastation  along 
its  shores.  At  Aix,  a huge  fossilized  head  of  one  of 
the  Sauri  was  for  a long  time  preserved  as  the  head  of 
the  identical  dragon  subdued  by  St.  Martha ; and  St. 
Jerome  relates  that  he  had  himself  beheld  at  Tyre  the 
bones  of  the  sea  monster  to  which  Andromeda  had 
been  exposed,  — probably  some  fossil  remains  which  in 
the  popular  imagination  were  thus  accounted  for.  Pro- 
fessor Owen  told  me  that  the  head  of  a dragon  in  one 
of  the  legendary  pictures  he  had  seen  in  Italy  closely 
resembled  in  form  that  of  the  Demotherium  Giganteum. 
These  observations  have  reference  only  to  the  type 
adopted  when  the  old  Scripture  allegory  took  form 
and  shape.  The  dragon  of  Holy  Writ  is  the  same  as 
the  serpent,  i.  e.  personified  sin,  the  spiritual  enemy  of 
mankind. 

The  Scriptural  phrase  of  the  jaws  of  hell  is  liter- 
ally rendered  in  the  ancient  works  of  art  by  the  huge 
jaws  of  a dragon,  wide  open  and  emitting  flames,  into 
which  the  souls  of  sinners  are  tumbled  headlong.  In 
pictures,  sin  is  also  typified  by  a serpent  or  snake ; in 
this  form  it  is  placed  Under  the  feet  of  the  Madonna, 
sometimes  with  an  apple  in  its  mouth ; sometimes,  but 
only  in  late  pictures,  of  the  seventeenth  century,  wind- 
ing its  green,  scaly  length  round  and  round  a globe, 
significant  of  the  subjugation  of  the  whole  earth  to  the 


32 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


power  of  sin  till  delivered  by  the  Kedeemer.  On  this 
subject  I shall  have  much  more  to  say  when  treating 
of  the  pictures  of  the  fall  of  man,  and  the  subjects 
taken  from  the  Apocalypse : for  the  present  we  need 
only  bear  in  mind  the  various  significations  of  the  pop- 
ular Dragon  myth,  which  may  shadow  forth  the  con- 
quest over  sin,  as  in  the  legends  of  St.  Michael  and 
St.  Margaret ; or  over  paganism,  as  in  the  legends  of 
St.  Sylvester  and  St.  George ; or  sometimes  a destroy- 
ing flood,  as  in  the  legend  of  St.  Martha,  where  the 
inundation  of  the  Rhone  is  figured  by  a dragon  emerg- 
ing from  the  waters  and  spreading  around  death  and 
pestilence,  — like  the  Python  of  the  Grecian  myth. 

The  Lion,  as  an  ancient  Christian  symbol,  is  of  fre- 
quent recurrence,  more  particularly  in  architectural 
decoration.  Antiquaries  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  exact 
meaning  attached  to  the  mystical  lions  placed  in  the 
porches  of  so  many  old  Lombard  churches ; sometimes 
with  an  animal,  sometimes  with  a man,  in  their  paws. 
But  we  find  that  the  lion  was  an  ancient  symbol  of  the 
Redeemer,  “ the  Lion  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  ; also  of 
the  resurrection  of  the  Redeemer ; because,  according 
to  an  Oriental  fable,  the  lion’s  cub  was  born  dead,  and 
in  three  days  its  sire  licked  it  into  life.  In  this  sense  it 
occurs  in  the  windows  of  the  cathedral  at  Bourges.  In 
either  sense  it  may  probably  have  been  adopted  as  a 
frequent  ornament  in  the  church  utensils,  and  in  eccle- 
siastical decoration,  supporting  the  pillars  in  front,  or 
the  carved  thrones,  &c. 

The  lion  also  typifies  solitude  — the  wilderness ; 
and,  in  this  sense,  is  placed  near  St.  Jerome  and  other 
saints  who  did  penance,  or  lived  as  hermits  in  the 
desert ; as  in  the  legends  of  St.  Paul  the  hermit,  St. 
Mary  of  Egypt,  St.  Onofrio.  Further,  the  lion  as  an 
attribute  denoted  death  in  the  amphitheatre,  and  with 
this  signification  is  placed  near  certain  martyrs,  as  St. 
Ignatius  and  St.  Euphemia.  The  lion,  as  the  type  of 
fortitude  and  resolution,  was  placed  at  the  feet  of  those 


INTRODUCTION. 


33 


martyrs  who  had  suffered  with  singular  courage,  as  St. 
Adrian  and  St.  Natalia.^ 

When  other  wild  beasts,  as  wolves  and  bears,  are 
placed  at  the  feet  of  a saint  attired  as  abbot  or  bishop, 
it  signifies  that  he  cleared  waste  land,  cut  down  forests, 
and  substituted  Christian  culture  and  civilization  for 
paganism  and  the  lawless  hunter’s  life : such  is  the  sig- 
nificance in  pictures  of  St.  Magnus,  St.  Florentius,  and 
St.  Germain  of  Auxerre. 

The  Hart  or  Hind  was  also  an  emblem  of  double 
signification.  It  was  a type  of  solitude  and  of  purity 
of  life,  and  was  also  a type  of  piety  and  religious  as- 
piration, adopted  from  the  forty-second  Psalm,  Like 
as  the  hart  panteth  after  the  water-brooks,  so  panteth 
my  soul  for  thee,  0 God ! ” 

When  the  original  meaning  of  the  lion,  the  hart,  and 
other  emblems,  was  no  longer  present  to  the  popular 
mind,  legends  were  invented  to  account  for  them ; and 
that  which  had  been  a symbol,  became  an  incident,  or 
an  historical  attribute,  — as  in  the  stories  of  the  lion 
healed  by  St.  Jerome,  or  digging  the  grave  of  St. 
Paul ; the  miraculous  stag  which  appeared  to  St.  Eu- 
stace and  St.  Hubert ; the  wounded  doe  in  the  legend 
of  St.  Giles ; and  the  hind  which  spoke  to  St.  Julian. 

The  Peacock,  the  bird  of  Juno,  w'as  an  ancient 
pagan  symbol,  signifying  the  apotheosis  of  an  empress, 
as  we  find  from  many  of  the  old  Roman  coins  and 
medals.  The  early  Christians,  accustomed  to  this  in- 
terpretation, adopted  it  as  a general  emblem  of  the 
mortal  exchanged  for  the  immortal  existence;  and, 
with  this  signification,  we  find  the  peacock  with  out- 
spread train  on  tlie  walls  and  ceilings  of  catacombs,  the 
tombs  of  the  martyrs,  and  many  of  the  sarcophagi, 

* In  the  example  of  St.  Jerome,  a lion  may  have  originally 
typified  any  hinderance  in  the  way  of  study  or  of  duty  *,  in  allu- 
sion to  the  text,  “The  slothful  man  saith,  There  is  a lion  in  the 
way.’^  Prov.  xxvi.  13. 

3 


34 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


down  to  the  fourth  and  fifth  centuries.  It  is  only  in 
modern  times  that  the  peacock  has  become  the  emblem 
of  worldly  pride. 

The  Crown,  as  introduced  in  Christian  Art,  is 
either  an  emblem  or  an  attribute.  It  has  been  the 
emblem  from  all  antiquity  of  victory,  and  of  recom- 
pense due  to  superior  power  or  virtue.  In  this  sense 
the  word  and  the  image  are  used  in  Scripture  in  many 
passages  : for  example,  Henceforth  there  is  laid  up 
for  me  a crown  of  glory.^^  And  in  this  sense,  as  the 
recompense  of  those  who  had  fought  the  good  fight  to 
the  end,  and  conquered,  the  crown  became  the  especial 
symbol  of  the  glory  of  martyrdom.  In  very  ancient 
pictures,  a hand  is  seen  coming  out  of  heaven  holding 
a wreath  or  circlet ; afterwards  it  is  an  angel  who  de- 
scends with  the  crown,  which  is  sometimes  a coronet 
of  gold  and  jewels,  sometimes  a wreath  of  palm  or 
myrtle.  In  general  only  the  female  martyrs  wear  the 
symbolical  crown  of  glory ; martyrs  of  the  other  sex 
hold  the  crown  in  their  hands,  or  it  is  borne  by  an 
angel.  Hence  we  may  presume  that  the  crown,  which 
among  the  Jews  was  the  especial  ornament  of  a bride, 
signified  the  bride  or  spouse  of  Christ  — one  dedicated 
to  virginity  for  his  sake ; and  in  this  sense,  down  to 
the  present  time,  the  crown  is  placed  on  the  head  of  a 
nun  at  the  moment  of  consecration.  Therefore  in  the 
old  pictures  of  female  martyrs  we  may  interpret  the 
crown  in  this  double  sense,  as  signifying  at  once  the 
bride  and  the  martyr. 

But  it  is  necessary  also  to  distinguish  between  the 
symbol  and  the  attribute:  thus,  where  St.  Cecilia  and 
St.  Barbara  wear  the  crown,  it  is  the  symbol  of  their 
glorious  martyrdom ; when  St.  Catherine  and  St.  Ur- 
sula wear  the  crown,  it  is  at  once  as  the  symbol  of 
martyrdom  and  the  attribute  of  their  royal  rank  as 
princesses. 

The  crown  is  also  the  symbol  of  sovereignty.  When 
it  is  placed  on  the  head  of  the  Virgin,  it  is  as  Queen 


INTRODUCTION. 


35 

of  Heaven,  and  also  as  the  Spouse  ” of  Scripture 
allegory. 

But  the  crown  is  also  an  attribute,  and  frequently, 
when  worn  by  a saint  or  placed  at  his  feet,  signifies 
that  he  was  royal  or  of  princely  birth : as  in  the  pic- 
tures of  Louis  of  France,  St.  William,  St.  Elizabeth, 
St.  Helena,  and  many  others. 

The  crowns  in  the  Italian  pictures  are  generally  a 
wreath,  or  a simple  circle  of  gold  and  jewels,  or  a cor- 
onet radiated  with  a few  points.  But  in  the  old  Ger- 
man pictures  the  crown  is  often  of  most  magnificent 
workmanship,  blazing  with  jewels. 

I have  seen  a real  silver  crown  placed  on  the  figures 
of  certain  popular  saints,  but  as  a votive  tribute,  not  an 
emblem. 

The  Sword  is  also  either  a symbol  or  an  attribute. 
As  a symbol  it  signifies  generally  martyrdom  by  any 
* violent  death,  and,  in  this  sense,  is  given  to  many  saints 
who  did  not  die  by  the  sword.  As  an  attribute  it  sig- 
nifies the  particular  death  suffered,  and  that  the  martyr 
in  whose  hand  or  at  whose  feet  it  is  placed  was  behead- 
ed : in  this  sense  it  is  given  to  St.  Paul,  St.  Catherine, 
and  many  others.  It  is  given  also  to  the  warrior-mar- 
tyrs, as  the  attribute  of  their  military  profession.  Other 
symbols  of  martyrdom  are  the  Axe,  the  Lance,  and 
the  Club. 

Arrows,  which  are  attributes,  St.  Ursula,  St.  Chris- 
tina, and  St.  Sebastian. 

The  Poniard,  given  to  St.  Lucia. 

The  Caldron,  given  to  St.  John  the  Evangelist 
and  St.  Cecilia. 

The  Pincers  and  Shears,  St.  Apollonia  and  St. 
Agatha. 


The  Wheels,  St.  Catherine. 


36 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


Fire  and  Flames  are  sometimes  an  emblem  of  mar- 
tyrdom and  punishment,  and  sometimes  of  religious 
fervor, 

A Bell  was  supposed  to  have  power  to  exorcise 
demons,  and  for  this  reason  is  given  to  the  haunted 
St.  Antony. 

The  Shell  signifies  pilgrimage. 

The  Skull,  penance. 

The  Anvil,  as  an  attribute  of  martyrdom,  belongs 
to  St.  Adrian  only. 

The  Palm,  the  ancient  classical  symbol  of  victory 
and  triumph,  was  early  assumed  by  the  Christians  as 
the  universal  symbol  of  martyrdom,  and  for  this  adap- 
tation of  a pagan  ornament  they  found  warrant  in 
Scripture : Rev.  vii.  9,  <<  And  after  this  I beheld,  and, 
lo,  a great  multitude  stood  before  the  throne  clothed 

with  white  robes  and  with  palms  in  their  hands 

And  he  said  to  me,  These  are  they  which  came  out 
of  great  tribulation.^'  Hence  in  pictures  of  martyr- 
doms an  angel  descends  with  the  palm  ; hence  it  is  fig- 
ured on  the  tombs  of  early  martyrs,  and  placed  in  the 
hands  of  those  who  suffered  in  the  cause  of  truth,  as 
expressing  their  final  victory  over  the  powers  of  sin  and 
death. 

“The  sensual  think  with  reverence  of  the  palm 
Which  the  chaste  votary  wields.” 

The  palm  varies  in  form  from  a small  leaf  to  the 
size  of  a palm  branch,  almost  a tree.  It  is  very  small 
in  the  early  Italian  pictures,  very  large  in  the  Spanish 
pietures.  In  the  Siena  pictures  it  has  a bunch  of  dates 
depending  from  it.  It  is  only  in  late  pictures  that  the 
palm,  with  a total  disregard  to  the  sacredness  of  its 
original  signification,  is  placed  on  the  ground,  or  under 
the  feet  of  the  saint. 


INTRODUCTION, 


37 


The  Standard,  or  banner,  is  also  the  symbol  of 
victory,  the  spiritual  victory  over  sin,  death,  and  idola- 
try. It  is  borne  by  our  Saviour  after  his  resurrection, 
and  is  placed  in  the  hands  of  St.  George,  St.  Maurice, 
and  other  military  saints ; in  the  hands  of  some  victo- 
rious martyrs,  as  St.  Julian,  St.  Ansano,  and  of  those 
who  preached  the  Gospel  among  infidels ; also  in  the 
hands  of  St.  Ursula  and  St.  Reparata,  the  only  female 
saints,  I believe,  who  bear  this  attribute. 

The  Olive,  as  the  well-known  emblem  of  peace  and 
reconciliation,  is  figured  on  the  tombs  of  the  early  mar- 
tyrs ; sometimes  with,  sometimes  without,  the  dove. 
The  olive  is  borne  as  the  attribute  of  peace  by  the 
angel  Gabriel,  by  St.  Agnes,  and  by  St.  Pantaleon ; 
sometimes  also  by  the  angels  in  a Nativity,  who  an- 
nounce peace  on  earth.” 

The  Dove  in  Christian  Art  is  the  emblem  of  the 
Holy  Ghost ; and,  besides  its  introduction  into  various 
subjects  from  the  New  Testament,  as  the  Annunciation, 
the  Baptism,  the  Pentecost,  it  is  placed  near  certain 
saints  who  are  supposed  to  have  been  particularly  in- 
spired, as  St.  Gregory,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  St.  Hila- 
rius,  and  others. 

The  dove  is  also  a symbol  of  simplicity  and  purity 
of  heart,  and  as  such  it  is  introduced  into  pictures  of 
female  saints,  and  especially  of  the  Madonna  and 
Child. 

It  is  also  the  emblem  of  the  soul ; in  this  sense  it  is 
seen  issuing  from  the  lips  of  dying  martyrs,  and  is 
found  in  pictures  of  St.  Eulalia  of  Merida,  and  St. 
Scholastica,  the  sister  of  St.  Benedict. 

The  Lilt  is  another  symbol  of  purity,  of  very  gen- 
eral application.  We  find  it  in  pictures  of  the  Vir- 
gin, and  particularly  in  pictures  of  the  Annunciation. 
It  is  placed  significantly  in  the  hand  of  St.  Joseph,  the 
husband  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  his  staff,  according  to  the 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


38 

legend,  having  put  forth  lilies ; it  is  given,  as  an  emblem 
merely,  to  St.  Francis,  St.  Anthony  of  Padua,  St. 
Dominick,  and  St.  Catherine  of  Siena,  to  express  the 
particular  purity  of  their  lives. 

The  Unicorn  is  another  ancient  symbol  of  purity, 
in  allusion  to  the  fable  that  it  could  never  be  captured 
except  by  a virgin  stainless  in  mind  and  life ; it  has 
become  in  consequence  the  emblem  peculiarly  of  female 
chastity,  but  in  Christian  Art  is  appropriate  only  to 
the  Virgin  Mary  and  St.  Justina. 

The  Flaming  Heart  expresses  fervent  piety  and 
love  : in  early  pictures  it  is  given  to  St.  Augustine, 
merely  in  allusion  to  a famous  passage  in  his  Confes- 
sions ; but  in  the  later  schools  of  Art  it  has  become  a 
general  and  rather  vulgar  emblem  of  spiritual  love  : in 
this  sense  it  is  given  to  St.  Theresa ; St.  Maria  Mad- 
dalena  de’  Pazzi,  a Florentine  nun ; and  some  of  the 
Jesuit  saints. 

The  Book  in  the  hands  of  the  Evangelists  and  the 
Apostles  is  an  attribute,  and  represents  the  Gospel.  In 
the  hand  of  St.  Stephen  it  is  the  Old  Testament;  in 
the  hand  of  any  other  saint  it  may  be  the  Gospel,  but 
it  may  also  be  an  emblem  only,  signifying  that  the  saint 
was  famous  for  his  learning  or  his  writings ; it  has  this 
sense  in  pictures  of  St.  Catherine,  the  Doctors  of  the 
Church,  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  and  St.  Bonaventura. 

A Church  placed  in  the  hands  of  a saint  signifies 
that  he  was  the  founder  of  some  particular  church  ; in 
this  sense  St.  Henry  bears  the  cathedral  of  Bamberg ; or, 
that  he  was  the  protector  and  first  bishop  of  the  church, 
as  St.  Petronius  bears  the  cathedral  of  Bologna.  I 
must  except  the  single  instance  of  St.  Jerome ; the 
church  in  his  hands  signifies  no  particular  edifice,  but 
in  a general  sense,  the  Catholic  Church,  of  which  he 
was  the  great  support  and  one  of  the  primitive  fathers ; 


INTRODUCTION. 


39 

to  render  the  symbol  more  expressive,,  rays  of  light  aro 
seen  proceeding  from  the  portal. 

The  Scourge  in  the  hand  of  a saint,  or  at  his  feet, 
signifies  the  penances  he  inflicted  upon  himself ; but  in 
the  hand  of  St.  Ambrose,  it  signifies  the  penance  he 
inflicted  upon  others. 

The  Chalice,  or  Sacramental  Cup,  with  the  Host, 
signifies  Faith ; it  is  given  to  St.  Barbara.  The  Cup, 
with  the  Serpent,  is  the  attribute  of  St.  John. 

The  Ship.  — The  Ark  of  Noah,  floating  safe  amid 
the  Deluge,  in  which  all  things  else  were  overwhelmed, 
was  an  obvious  symbol  of  the  Church  of  Christ.  Sub- 
sequently the  Ark  became  a ship.  St.  Ambrose  likens 
the  Church  of  God  to  a ship,  and  the  Cross  to  the 
mast  set  in  the  midst  of  it.  ‘‘  Arbor  qucedam  in  navi  est 
crux  in  ecclesia.”  The  Bark  of  St.  Peter  tossed  in  the 
storm,  and  by  the  Redeemer  guided  safe  to  land,  was 
also  considered  as  symbolical.  These  mingled  asso- 
ciations combined  to  give  to  the  emblem  of  the  ship  a 
sacred  significance.  Every  one  who  has  been  at  Rome 
will  remember  the  famous  mosaic  of  the  ship  tossed 
by  the  storms,  and  assailed  by  demons,  called  The 
Navicella,  which  was  executed  by  Giotto  for  the  old 
Basilica  of  St.  Peter’s,  and  is  now  under  the  Portico, 
opposite  to  the  principal  door.  I believe  that  in  the 
pictures  of  St.  Nicholas  and  St.  Ursula  the  ship  had 
originally  a sacred  and  symbolical  significance,  and 
that  the  legends  were  afterwards  invented  or  modified 
to  explain  the  emblem,  as  in  so  many  other  instances. 

The  Anchor  is  the  Christian  symbol  of  immovable 
firmness,  hope,  and  patience  ; and  in  this  sense  we  find 
it  very  frequently  in  the  catacombs,  and  on  the  ancient 
Christian  gems.  It  was  given  to  several  of  the  early 
saints  as  a symbol.  Subsequently  a legend  was  invented 
to  account  for  the  symbol,  turning  it  into  an  attribute, 


40 


LEGENDARY  ART, 


as  was  the  case  with  the  lion  and  the  stag.  For  ex- 
ample : to  St.  Clement  the  anchor  was  first  given  as 
the  symbol  of  his  constancy  in  Christian  hope,  and 
thence  we  find,  subsequently  invented,  the  story  of  his 
being  thrown  into  the  sea  with  the  anchor  round  his 
neck.  On  the  vane  of  the  church  of  St.  Clement  in 
the  Strand,  the  anchor,  the  parish  device,  was  anciently 
placed  ; and  as  in  the  English  fancy  no  anchor  can  be 
well  separated  from  a ship,  they  have  lately  placed  a 
ship  on  the  other  side,  — the  original  signification  of 
the  anchor,  as  applied  to  St.  Clement  the  martyr,  being 
unknown  or  forgotten. 

The  Lamp,  Lantern,  or  Taper  is  the  old  emblem 
of  piety  : “ Let  your  light  so  shine  before  men  ” ; and 
it  also  signifies  wisdom.  In  the  first  sense  we  find  this 
attribute  in  the  hand  of  St.  Gudula,  St.  Genevieve  of 
Paris,  and  St.  Bridget ; while  the  lamp  in  the  hand  of 
St.  Lucia  signifies  celestial  light  or  wisdom. 

Flowers  and  Fruits,  often  so  beautifully  intro- 
duced into  ecclesiastical  works  of  art,  may  be  merely 
ornamental ; Crivelli,  and  some  of  the  Venetian  and 
Lombard  painters,  were  fond  of  rich  festoons  of  fruit, 
and  backgrounds  of  foliage  and  roses.  But  in  some 
instances  they  have  a definite  significance.  Roses  are 
symbolical  in  pictures  of  the  Madonna,  who  is  the 
“ Ejose  of  Sharon.”  * The  wreath  of  roses  on  the  brow 
of  St.  Cecilia,  the  roses  and  fruits  borne  by  St.  Doro- 
thea, are  explained  by  the  legends. 

The  apple  was  the  received  emblem  of  the  Fall  of 
Man  and  original  sin.  Placed  in  pictures  of  the  Ma- 
donna and  Child,  either  in  the  hand  of  the  Infant 
Christ,  or  presented  by  an  angel,  it  signified  Redemption 
from  the  consequences  of  the  Fall.  The  pomegranate, 
bursting  open,  and  the  seeds  visible,  was  an  emblem  of 
the  future,  — of  hope  in  immortality.  When  an  apple, 
a pear,  or  a pomegranate  is  placed  in  the  hand  of  St. 


Vide  “ Legends  of  the  Madonna.’ 


INTRODUCTION. 


41 


Catherine  as  the  mystical  Sposa  of  Christ,  which  con- 
tinually occurs,  particularly  in  the  German  pictures,  the 
allusion  is  to  be  taken  in  the  Scriptural  sense  :  *  **  The 
.fruit  of  the  Spirit  is  love,  joy,  peace.” 


V.  Of  the  Significance  of  Colors. 

In  very  early  Art  we  find  colors  used  in  a symbolical 
or  mystic  sense,  and,  until  the  ancient  principles  and 
traditions  were  wholly  worn  out  of  memory  or  set  aside 
by  the  later  painters,  certain  colors  were  appropriate  to 
certain  subjects  and  personages,  and  could  not  arbitra- 
rily be  applied  or  misapplied.  In  the  old  specimens  of 
stained  glass  we  find  these  significations  scrupulously 
attended  to.  Thus  : — 

White,  represented  by  the  diamond  or  silver,  was 
the  emblem  of  light,  religious  purity,  innocence,  vir- 
ginity, faith,  joy,  and  life.  Our  Saviour  w’ears  white 
after  his  resurrection.  In  the  judge  it  indicated  integ- 
rity ; in  the  rich  man,  humility  ; in  the  woman,  chastity. 
It  was  the  color  consecrated  to  the  Virgin,  who, 
however,  never  wears  white  except  in  pictures  of  the 
Assumption. 

Red,  the  ruby,  signified  fire,  divine  love,  the  Holy 
Spirit,  heat,  or  the  creative  power,  and  royalty.  White 
and  red  roses  expressed  love  and  innocence,  or  love  and 
wisdom,  as  in  the  garland  with  which  the  angel  crowns 
St.  Cecilia.  In  a bad  sense,  red  signified  blood,  war, 
hatred,  and  punishment.  Red  and  black  combined 
were  the  colors  of  purgatory  and  the  Devil. 

Blue,  or  the  sapphire,  expressed  heaven,  the  firma- 
ment, truth,  constancy,  fidelity.  Christ  and  the  Virgin 
wear  the  red  tunic  and  the  blue  mantle,  as  signifying 
heavenly  love  and  heavenly  truth. ^ The  same  colors 

* In  the  Spanish  schools  the  color  of  our  Saviour’s  mantle  is 

generally  a deep  rich  violet. 


42 


LEGENDARY  ART. 


were  given  to  St.  John  the  evangelist,  with  this  differ- 
ence, — that  he  wore  the  blue  tunic  and  the  red  mantle  ; 
in  later  pictures  the  colors  are  sometimes  red  and 
green. 

Yellow,  or  gold,  was  the  symbol  of  the  sun ; of  the 
goodness  of  God ; initiation,  or  marriage ; faith,  or 
fruitfulness.  St.  Joseph,  the  husband  of  the  Virgin, 
wears  yellow.  In  pictures  of  the  apostles,  St.  Peter 
wears  a yellow  mantle  over  a blue  tunic.  In  a bad 
sense,  yellow  signifies  inconstancy,  jealousy,  deceit ; in 
this  sense  it  is  given  to  the  traitor  Judas,  who  is  gen- 
erally habited  in  dirty  yellow. 

Green,  the  emerald,  is  the  color  of  spring ; of  hope, 
particularly  hope  in  immortality ; and  of  victory,  as 
the  color  of  the  palm  and  the  laurel. 

Violet,  the  amethyst,  signified  love  and  truth  ; or, 
passion  and  suffering.  Hence  it  is  the  color  often  worn 
by  the  martyrs.  In  some  instances  our  Saviour,  after 
his  resurrection,  is  habited  in  a violet  instead  of  a blue 
mantle.  The  Virgin  also  wears  violet  after  the  cruci- 
fixion. Mary  Magdalene,  who  as  patron  saint  wears 
the  red  robe,  as  penitent  wears  violet  and  blue,  the 
colors  of  sorrow  and  of  constancy.  In  the  devotional 
representation  of  her  by  Timoteo  della  Vite,*  she 
wears  red  and  green,  the  colors  of  love  and  hope. 

Gray,  the  color  of  ashes,  signified  mourning,  humil- 
ity, and  innocence  accused  ; hence  adopted  as  the  dress 
of  the  Franciscans  (the  Gray  Friars)  ; but  it  has  since 
been  changed  for  a dark  rusty  brown. 

Black  expressed  the  earth,  darkness,  mourning, 
wickedness,  negation,  death ; and  was  appropriate  to 
the  Prince  of  Darkness.  In  some  old  illuminated 
MSS.,  Jesus,  in  the  Temptation,  wears  a black  robe. 


Bologna  Gallery. 


INTRODUCTION. 


43 


White  and  black  together  signified  purity  of  life,  and 
mourning  or  humiliation  ; hence  adopted  by  the  Do- 
minicans and  the  Carmelites. 

The  mystical  application  of  attributes  and  colors  was 
more  particularly  attended  to  in  that  class  of  subjects 
I have  distinguished  as  devotional.  In  the  sacred  his^ 
torical  pictures  we  find  that  the  attributes  are  usually 
omitted  as  superfluous,  and  characteristic  propriety  of 
color  often  sacrificed  to  the  general  effect. 

These  introductory  observations  and  explanations 
will  be  found  illustrated  in  a variety  of  forms  as  we 
proceed ; and  readers  will  be  led  to  make  comparisons, 
and  discover  analogies  and  exceptions,  for  themselves. 
I must  stop  here  ; — yet  one  word  more.  — 

All  the  productions  of  Art,  from  the  time  it  has  been 
directed  and  developed  by  Christian  influences,  may  be 
regarded  under  three  different  aspects.  1.  The  purely 
religious  aspect,  which  belongs  to  one  mode  of  faith ; 
2.  The  poetical  aspect,  which  belongs  to  all ; 3.  The 
artistic,  which  is  the  individual  point  of  view,  and  has 
reference  only  to  the  action  of  the  intellect  on  the  means 
and  material  employed.  There  is  pleasure,  intense 
pleasure,  merely  in  the  consideration  of  Art  as  Art; 
in  the  faculties  of  comparison  and  nice  discrimina- 
tion, brought  to  bear  on  objects  of  beauty ; in  the  ex- 
ercise of  a cultivated  and  refined  taste  on  the  productions 
of  mind  in  any  form  whatever.  But  a threefold,  or 
rather  a thousand-fold,  pleasure  is  theirs  who  to  a sense 
of  the  poetical  unite  a sympathy  with  the  spiritual  in 
Art,  and  who  combine  with  delicacy  of  perception,  and 
technical  knowledge,  more  elevated  sources  of  pleasure, 
more  variety  of  association,  habits  of  more  excursive 
thought.  Let  none  imagine,  however,  that,  in  placing 
before  the  uninitiated  these  unpretending  volumes,  I 
assume  any  such  superiority  as  is  here  implied.  Like 
a child  that  has  sprung  on  a little  way  before  its  play- 
mates, and  caught  a glimpse  through  an  opening  portal 


44 


legej/dary  art. 


of  some  varied  Eden  within,  all  gay  with  flowers,  and 
musical  with  birds,  and  haunted  by  divine  shapes  which 
beckon  onward  ; and,  after  one  rapturous  survey,  runs 
back  and  catches  its  companions  by  the  hand  and  hur- 
ries them  forwards  to  share  the  new-found  pleasure,  the 
yet  unexplored  region  of  delight ; even  so  it  is  with 
me : — I am  on  the  outside,  not  the  inside,  of  the  door 
I open. 


PART  I. 


“ Ye  too  must  fly  before  a chasing  hand, 

Angels  and  saints  in  every  hamlet  mourned  ! 

Ah  ! if  the  old  idolatry  be  spurned, 

Let  not  your  radiant  shapes  desert  the  land  ! 

Her  adoration  was  not  your  demand,  — 

The  fond  heart  proffered  it,  — the  servile  heart, 

And  therefore  are  ye  summoned  to  depart  *, 

Michael,  and  thou  St.  George,  whose  flaming  brand 
The  Dragon  quelled  j and  valiant  Margaret, 

Whose  rival  sword  a like  opponent  slew  j 
And  rapt  Cecilia,  seraph-haunted  queen 
Of  harmony  *,  and  weeping  Magdalene, 

Who  in  the  penitential  desert  met 

Gales  sweet  as  those  that  over  Eden  blew  I ” 

Wordsworth. 

“ ‘ I can  just  remember,’  says  a theologian  of  the  last  century, 
‘ when  the  women  first  taught  me  to  say  my  prayers,  I used  to 
have  an  idea  of  a venerable  old  man,  of  a composed,  benign 
countenance,  with  his  own  hair,  clad  in  a morning  gown  of  a 
grave-colored  fiowered  damask,  sitting  in  an  elbow-chair.’  And 
he  proceeds  to  say  that,  in  looking  back  to  these  beginnings,  he 
is  in  no  way  disturbed  at  the  grossness  of  his  infant  theology. 
The  image  thus  shaped  by  the  imagination  of  the  child  was,  in 
truth,  merely  one  example  of  the  various  forms  and  conceptions 
fitted  to  divers  states  and  seasons,  and  orders  and  degrees,  of  the 
religious  mind,  whether  infant  or  adult,  which  represent  the 
several  approximations  such  minds  at  such  seasons  can  respec- 
tively make  to  the  completeness  of  faith.  These  imperfect  ideas 
should  be  held  to  be  reconciled  and  comprehended  in  that  com- 
pleteness, not  rejected  by  it  5 and  the  nearest  approximation 
which  the  greatest  of  human  minds  can  accomplish  is  surely  to 
be  regarded  as  much  nearer  to  the  imperfection  of  an  infantine 
notion  than  to  the  fulness  of  truth.  The  gown  of  flowered 
damask  and  the  elbow-chair  may  disappear ; the  anthropomor- 
phism of  childhood  may  give  place  to  the  divine  incarnation 
of  the  Second  Person  in  after-years  ; and  we  may  come  to  con- 
ceive of  the  Deity  as  Milton  did  when  his  epithets  were  most 
abstract : — 

‘So  spake  the  Sovran  Presence.* 

But  after  all,  these  are  but  different  grades  of  imperfection  in 
the  forms  of  doctrinal  faith  •,  and  if  there  be  a devouter  love  on 
the  part  of  the  child  for  what  is  pictured  in  his  imagination  as  a 
venerable  old  man,  than  in  the  philosophic  poet  for  the  ‘Sovran 
Presence,’  the  child’s  faith  has  more  of  the  efficacy  of  religious 
truth  in  it  than  the  poet’s  and  philosopher’s.”  (J^ide  “ Notes  on 
Life,”  by  Henry  Taylor,  p.  136.) 


OF  ANGELS  AND  ARCHANGELS. 


I.  The  Angels. 


HERE  is  something  so  very  attractive  and 


poetical,  as  well  as  soothing  to  our  helpless 
finite  nature,  in  all  the  superstitions  con- 
nected with  the  popular  notion  of  Angels, 
that  we  cannot  wonder  at  their  prevalence  in  the  early 
ages  of  the  world.  Those  nations  who  acknowledged 
one  Almighty  Creator,  and  repudiated  with  horror  the 
idea  of  a plurality  of  Gods,  were  the  most  willing  to 
accept,  the  most  enthusiastic  in  accepting,  these  objects 
of  an  intermediate  homage ; and  gladly  placed  between 
their  humanity  and  the  awful  supremacy  of  an  unseen 
God  the  ministering  spirits  who  were  the  agents  of  his 
will,  the  witnesses  of  his  glory,  the  partakers  of  his 
bliss,  and  who  in  their  preternatural  attributes  of  love 
and  knowledge  filled  up  that  vast  space  in  the  created 
universe  which  intervened  between  mortal  man  and  the 
infinite,  omnipotent  Lord  op  All. 

The  belief  in  these  superior  beings,  dating  from  im- 
memorial antiquity,  interwoven  as  it  should  seem  with 
our  very  nature,  and  authorized  by  a variety  of  passa- 
ges in  Scripture,  has  descended  to  our  time.  Although 
the  bodily  forms  assigned  to  them  ai’e  allowed  to  be 
impossible,  and  merely  allegorical,  although  their  sup- 
posed functions  as  rulers  of  the  stars  and  elements  have 
long  been  set  aside  by  a knowledge  of  the  natural 


48  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

laws,  still  the  coexistence  of  many  orders  of  beings 
superior  in  nature  to  ourselves,  benignly  interested  in 
our  welfare,  and  contending  for  us  against  the  powers 
of  evil,  remains  an  article  of  faith.  Perhaps  the  be- 
lief itself,  and  the  feeling  it  excites  in  the  tender  and 
contemplative  mind,  were  never  more  beautifully  ex- 
pressed than  by  our  own  .Spenser. 

“ And  is  there  care  in  heaven  ? And  is  there  love 
In  heavenly  spirits  to  these  creatures  base, 

That  may  compassion  of  their  evils  move  ? 

There  is  ! — else  much  more  wretched  were  the  case 
Of  men  than  beasts  ! But  0 th’  exceeding  grace 
Of  highest  God  that  loves  his  creatures  so, 

And  all  his  works  with  mercy  doth  embrace. 

That  blessed  angels  he  sends  to  and  fro 
To  serve  to  wicked  man,  to  serve  his  wicked  foe  ! 

“How  oft  do  they  their  silver  bowers  leave. 

And  come  to  succor  us  that  succor  want ! 

How  oft  do  they  with  golden  pinions  cleave 
The  flitting  skies,  like  flying  pursuivant. 

Against  foul  fiends,  to  aid  us  militant ! 

They  for  us  fight,  they  watch,  and  duly  ward, 

And  their  bright  squadrons  round  about  us  plant. 

And  all  for  love,  and  nothing  for  reward  ! 

0 why  should  heavenly  God  to  men  have  such  regard  I ” 

It  is  this  feeling,  expressed  or  unexpressed,  lurking  at 
the  very  core  of  all  hearts,  which  renders  the  usual  rep- 
resentations of  angels,  spite  of  all  incongruities  of  form, 
so  pleasing  to  the  fancy : we  overlook  the  anatomical 
solecisms,  and  become  mindful  only  of  that  emblemati- 
cal significance  which  through  its  humanity  connects  it 
with  us,  and  through  its  supernatural  appendages  con- 
nects us  with  heaven. 

But  it  is  necessary  to  give  a brief  summary  of  the 
Scriptural  and  theological  authorities,  relative  to  the  na- 
ture and  functions  of  angels,  before  we  can  judge  of 
the  manner  in  which  these  ideas  have  been  attended  to 
and  carried  out  in  the  artistic  similitudes.  Thus  angels 
are  represented  in  the  Old  Testament,  — 


ANGELS. 


49 

1.  As  beings  of  a higher  nature  than  men,  and  gifted 
with  superior  intelligence  and  righteousness.* * * § 

2.  As  a host  of  attendants  surrounding  the  throne  of 
God,  and  as  a kind  of  celestial  court  or  council.f 

3.  As  messengers  of  His  will  conveyed  from  heaven 
to  earth : or  as  sent  to  guide,  to  correct,  to  instruct,  to 
reprove,  to  console. 

4.  As  protecting  the  pious. 

5.  As  punishing  by  command  of  the  Most  High  the 
wicked  and  disobedient.^ 

6.  As  having  the  form  of  men ; as  eating  and  drinking. 

7.  As  wielding  a sword. 

8.  As  having  power  to  slay.  § 

I do  not  recollect  any  instance  in  which  angels  are 
represented  in  Scripture  as  instigated  by  human  pas- 
sions ; they  are  merely  the  agents  of  the  mercy  or  the 
wrath  of  the  Almighty. 

After  the  period  of  the  captivity,  the  Jewish  ideas 
concerning  angels  were  considerably  extended  and 
modified  by  an  admixture  of  the  Chaldaic  belief,  and 
of  the  doctrines  taught  by  Zoroaster.  U It  is  then  that 
we  first  hear  of  good  and  bad  angels,  and  of  a fallen 
angel  or  impersonation  of  evil,  busy  in  working  mis- 
chief on  earth  and  counteracting  good ; also  of  archan- 
gels, who  are  alluded  to  by  name ; and  of  guardian  an- 
gels, assigned  to  nations  and  individuals ; and  these  for- 
eign ideas  concerning  the  spiritual  world,  accepted  and 
promulgated  by  the  Jewish  doctors,  pervade  the  whole 
of  the  New  Testament,  in  which  angels  are  far  more 
familiar  to  us  as  agents,  more  frequently  alluded  to, 
and  more  distinctly  brought  before  us,  than  in  the  Old 
Testament.  For  example : they  are  represented,  — 

* 2 Sam.  xiv.  17. 

t Gen.  xxxii.  1,  2 j Ps.  ciii.  21;  1 Kings  xxii.  19 ; Job  i.  6. 

X Gen.  xxii.  11 ; Exod.  xiv.  19 ; Num.  xx.  16 ; Gen.  xxi.  17 ; 
Judg.  xiii.  3 ; 2 Kings  i.  3 ; Ps.  xxxiv.  7 ; Judith  xiii.  20. 

§ 2 Sam.  xxiv.  16  ; 2 Kings  xix.  35  ; Gen.  xviii.  8 ; Num.  xxii. 
31 5 1 Chron.  xxi.  16  ; Gen.  xix.  13. 

II  Calmet. 


4 


50  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

1.  As  countless. 

2.  As  superior  to  all  human  wants  and  weaknesses. 

3.  As  the  deputed  messengers  of  God. 

4.  They  rejoice  over  the  repentant  sinner.  They 
take  deep  interest  in  the  mission  of  Christ. 

5.  Tliey  are  present  with  those  who  pray ; they  bear 
the  souls  of  the  just  to  heaven. 

6.  They  minister  to  Christ  on  earth,  and  will  he 
present  at  his  second  coming.^ 

In  the  Gospel  of  St.  John,  which  is  usually  regarded 
as  the  fullest  and  most  correct  exposition  of  the  doc- 
trines of  Christ,  angels  are  only  three  times  mentioned, 
and  in  none  of  these  instances  does  the  word  angel  fall 
from  the  lips  of  Christ.  On  the  other  hand,  the  writ- 
ings of  St.  Paul,  who  was  deeply  versed  in  all  the 
learning  and  philosophy  of  the  Jews,  abound  in  allu- 
sions to  angels,  and,  according  to  the  usual  interpreta- 
tion of  certain  passages  he  shows  them  divided  into 
several  classes.!  St.  Luke,  who  was  the  friend  and 
disciple  of  St.  Paul,  some  say  his  convert,  is  more  di- 
rect and  explicit  on  the  subject  of  angels  than  any  of 
the  other  Evangelists,  and  his  allusions  to  them  much 
more  frequent. 

The  worship  of  angels,  which  the  Jews  brought  from 
Chaldea,  was  early  introduced  into  the  Christian 
Church.  In  the  fourth  century  the  council  of  Laodi- 
cea  published  a decree  against  places  of  worship  dedi- 
cated to  angels  under  names  which  the  Church  did  not 
recognize.  But  neither  warning  nor  council  seems  to 
have  had  power  to  modify  the  popular  creed,  counte- 
nanced as  it  was  by  high  authority.  All  the  Fathers 
are  unanimous  as  to  the  existence  of  angels  good  and 
evil.  They  hold  that  it  is  evermore  the  allotted  task 

* Matt.  xxvi.  53  •,  Heb.  xii.  22 ; Matt.  xxii.  30 ; Luke  xx.  36 } 
Matt.  xix.  24  j Luke  i.  11 ; Acts  v.  19  et  passim ; Luke  xv.  10  j 
1 Peter  i.  12  •,  Luke  xvi.  22  j Heb.  i.  14  j 1 Cor.  xi.  10  ; Matt.  i.  20, 
xvi.  27,  XXV.  31. 

t Rom.  viii.  38  ; Col.  i.  16  j Ephes.  i.  21. 


ANGELS. 


51 


of  good  angels  to  defend  us  against  evil  angels,  and  to 
carry  on  a daily  and  hourly  combat  against  our  spirit- 
ual foes  : they  teach  that  the  good  angels  are  worthy 
of  all  reverence  as  the  ministers  of  God  and  as  the  pro- 
tectors of  the  human  race ; that  their  intercession  is  to 
be  invoked,  and  their  perpetual,  invisible  presence  to  be 
regarded  as  an  incitement  to  good  and  a preventive  to 
evil. 

This,  however,  was  not  enough.  Taking  for  their 
foundation  a few  Scripture  texts,  and  in  particular  the 
classification  of  St.  Paul,  the  imaginative  theologians 
of  the  middle  ages  ran  into  all  kinds  of  extravagant 
subtleties  regarding  the  being,  the  nature,  and  the  func- 
tions of  the  different  orders  of  angels.  Except  as  far 
as  they  have  been  taken  as  authorities  in  Art,  I shall 
set  aside  these  fanciful  disquisitions,  of  which  a mere 
abstract  would  fill  volumes.  For  our  present  purpose 
it  is  sufficient  to  bear  in  mind  that  the  great  theologi- 
ans divide  the  angelic  hosts  into  three  hierarchies,  and 
these  again  into  nine  choirs,  three  in  each  hierarchy : 
according  to  Dionysius  the  Areopagite,  in  the  following 
order:  1.  Seraphim,  Cherubim,  Thrones.  2.  Domina- 
tions, Virtues,  Powers.  3.  Princedoms,  Archangels, 
Angels.  The  order  of  these  denominations  is  not  the 
same  in  all  authorities  : according  to  the  Greek  formula, 
St.  Bernard,  and  the  Legenda  Aurea,  the  Cherubim 
precede  the  Seraphim,  and  in  the  hymn  of  St.  Ambrose 
they  have  also  the  precedence,  — To  Thee^  Cherubim 
and  Seraphim  continually  do  cry^  &c. ; but  the  authority 
of  St.  Dionysius  seems  to  be  admitted  as  paramount, 
for  according  to  the  legend  he  was  the  convert  and  in- 
timate friend  of  St.  Paul,  and  St.  Paul,  who  had  been 
transported  to  the  seventh  heaven,  had  made  him  ac- 
quainted with  all  he  had  there  beheld. 

“ Desire 

In  Dionysius  so  intensely  wrought 
That  he,  as  I have  done,  ranged  them,  and  named 
Their  orders,  marshalled  in  his  thought  j 
. . . . For  he  had  learned 


52 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


Both  this  and  much  beside  of  these  our  orbs 
From  an  eyewitness  to  Heaven’s  mysteries.” 

Dante,  Par.  28. 

The  first  three  choirs  receive  their  glory  immediately 
from  God,  and  transmit  it  to  the  second ; the  second 
illuminate  the  third  ; the  third  are  placed  in  relation  to 
the  created  universe  and  man.  The  first  Hierarchy  are 
as  councillors ; the  second,  as  governors ; the  third,  as 
ministers.  The  Seraphim  are  absorbed  in  perpetual 
love  and  adoration  immediately  round  the  throne  of 
God.  The  Cherubim  know  and  worship.  The  Thrones 
sustain  the  seat  of  the  Most  High.  The  Dominations, 
Virtues,  Powers,  are  the  Regents  of  stars  and  elements. 
The  three  last  orders.  Princedoms,  Archangels,  and 
Angels,  are  the  protectors  of  the  great  Monarchies  on 
earth,  and  the  executors  of  the  will  of  God  throughout 
the  universe. 

The  term  angels  is  properly  applied  to  all  these  ce- 
lestial beings ; but  it  belongs  especially  to  the  two  last 
orders  who  are  brought  into  immediate  communication 
with  the  human  race.  The  word  angel,  Greek  in  its 
origin,  signifies  a messenger,  or  more  literally  a hringer 
of  tidmgs.  In  this  sense,  the  Greeks  entitle  Christ 
**  The  great  Angel  of  the  will  of  God  ; and  I have 
seen  Greek  representations  of  Christ  with  wings  to  his 
shoulders.  John  the  Baptist  is  also  an  angel  in  this 
sense ; likewise  the  Evangelists ; all  of  whom,  as  I 
shall  show  hereafter,  bear,  as  celestial  messengers,  the 
angel-wings. 

In  ancient  pictures  and  illuminations  which  exhibit 
the  glorification  of  the  Trinity,  Christ,  or  the  Virgin, 
the  hierarchies  of  angels  are  represented  in  circles 
around  them,  orb  within  orb.  This  is  called  a glory 
of  angels.  In  pictures,  it  is  seldom  complete  : instead 
of  nine  circles,  the  painters  content  themselves  with  one 
or  two  circles  only.  The  innermost  circles,  the  Sera- 
phim and  the  Cherubim,  are  in  general  represented  as 
heads  merely,  with  two  or  four  or  six  wings,  and  of  a 
bright-red  or  blue  color;  sometimes  with  variegated 


ANGELS, 


53 


wings,  green,  yellow,  violet,  &c.  This  emblem  — in- 
tended to  shadow  forth  to  human  comprehension  a 
pure  spirit  glowing  with  love  and  intelligence,  in  which 
all  that  is  bodily  is  put  away,  and  only  the  head,  the 
seat  of  soul,  and  wings,  the  attribute  of  spirit  and  swift- 
ness, retained  — is  of  Greek  origin.  When  first  adopted 
I do  not  know,  but  I have  met  with  it  in  Greek  MSS. 
of  the  ninth  century.  Down  to  the  eleventh  century 
the  faces  were  human,  but  not  childish ; the  infant 
head  was  afterwards  adopted  to  express  innocence  in 
addition  to  love  and  intelligence. 

Such  was  the  expressive  and  poetical  symbol  which 
degenerated  in  the  later  periods  of  Art  into  those  little 
fat  baby  heads,  with  curly  hair,  and  small  wings  under 
the  chin,  which  the  more  they  resemble  nature  in  color, 
feature,  and  detail,  the  more  absurd  they  become,  the 
original  meaning  being  wholly  lost  or  perverted. 

In  painting,  where  a glory  of  angels  is  placed  round 
the  Divine  Being  or  the  glorified  Virgin,  those  forming 
the  innermost  circle  are,  or  ought  to  be,  of  a glowing 
red,  the  color  of  fire,  that  is,  of  love ; the  next  circle  is 
painted  blue,  the  color  of  the  firmament,  or  light,  that 
is,  of  knowledge.  Now  as  the  word  seraph  is ‘derived 
from  a Hebrew  root  signifying  love,  and  the  word 
cherub  from  a Hebrew  root  signifying  to  know,  should 
not  this  distinction  fix  the  proper  place  and  name  of 
the  first  two  orders  ? It  is  admitted  that  the  spirits 
which  love  are  nearer  to  God  than  those  which  know, 
since  we  cannot  know  that  which  we  do  not  first  love ; 
that  Love  and  Knowledge,  the  two  halves  of  a divided 
world,^’  constitute  in  their  union  the  perfection  of  the 
angelic  nature;  but  the  Seraphim,  according  to  the 
derivation  of  their  name,  should  love  most ; their  whole 
being  is  fused,  as  it  were,  in  a glow  of  adoration ; 
therefore  they  should  take  the  precedence,  and  their 
proper  color  is  red.  The  Cherubim,  <^the  lords  of 
those  that  know,^^  come  next,  and  are  to  be  painted 
blue. 


54 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


Thus  it  should  seem  that,  in  considering  the  religious 
pictures  of  the  early  ages  of  Art,  we  have  to  get  rid  of 
certain  associations  as  to  color  and  form,  derived  from 
the  phraseology  of  later  poets  and  the  representations 
of  later  painters.  “Blue-eyed  Seraphim,”  and  the 
“ blue  depth  of  Seraphs’  eyes,”  are  not  to  be  thought 
of  any  more  than  “smiling  Cherubim.”  The  Sera- 
phim, where  distinguished  by  color,  are  red ; the 
Cherubim,  blue  : the  proper  character,  where  character 
is  attended  to,  is,  in  the  Seraph,  adoration;  in  the 
Cherub,  contemplation.  So  Milton  : — 

“ With  thee  bring 
Him  who  soars  on  golden  wing, 

The  Cherub,  Contemplation.” 

I remember  a little  Triptyca,  a genuine  work  of 
Fiesole,  in  which  one  of  the  lateral  compartments  rep- 
resents his  favorite  subject,  the  souls  of  the  blessed 
received  into  Paradise.  They  are  moving  from  the 
lower  part  of  the  picture  towards  the  top,  along  an  as- 
cent paved  with  flowers,  all  in  white  garments  and 
crowned  with  roses.  At  one  side,  low  down,  stands  a 
blue  Cherub  robed  in  drapery  spangled  with  golden 
stars,  who  seems  to  encourage  the  blessed  group. 
Above  are  the  gates  of  heaven.  Christ  welcomes  to 
his  kingdom  the  beatified  spirits,  and  on  each  side 
stands  a Seraph  all  of  a glowing  red,  in  spangled 
drapery.  The  figures  are  not  here  merely  heads  and 
wings,  but  full  length,  having  all  that  soft,  peculiar  grace 
which  belongs  to  the  painter.^ 

In  a Coronation  of  the  Virgin,!  a glory  of  Seraphim 

* I know  not  whether  it  be  necessary  to  observe  here,  that  in 
early  Art  the  souls  of  the  blessed  are  not  represented  as  angels, 
nor  regarded  as  belonging  to  this  order  of  spiritual  beings, 
though  I believe  it  is  a very  common  notion  that  we  are  to  rise 
from  the  dead  with  the  angelic  attributes  as  well  as  the  angelic 
nature.  For  this  belief  there  is  no  warrant  in  Scripture,  unless 
Mark  xii.  25  be  so  interpreted. 

t Now  in  the  Collection  of  Prince  Wallerstein  at  Kensington 
Palace. 


ANGELS. 


55 


over-arches  the  principal  group.  Here  the  angelic  be- 
ings are  wholly  of  a bright-red  color : they  are  human 
to  the  waist,  with  hands  clasped  in  devotion  : the  bodies 
and  arms  covered  with  plumage,  but  the  forms  termi- 
nating in  wings  ; all  uniformly  red.  In  the  same  col- 
lection is  a small  Greek  picture  of  Christ  receiving  the 
soul  of  the  Virgin ; over  his  head  hovers  a large, 
fiery-red,  six-winged  Seraph  ; and  on  each  side  a Ser- 
aph with  hair  and  face  and  limbs  of  glowing  red,  and 
with  white  draperies.  Vasari  mentions  an  Adoration 
of  the  Magi  by  Liberale  of  Verona,  in  which  a group 
of  angels,  all  of  a red  color,  stand  as  a celestial  guard 
round  the  Virgin  and  her  divine  Infant.^ 

The  distinction  of  hue  in  the  red  and  blue  angels  we 
find  wholly  omitted  towards  the  end  of  the  fifteenth 
century.  Cherubim  with  blue,  red,  green,  and  variegat- 
ed wings  we  find  in  the  pictures  of  Perugino  and  other 
masters  in  the  beginning  of  the  sixteenth  century,  also 
in  early  pictures  of  Raphael.  Liberale  di  Verona  has 
given  us,  in  a Madonna  picture.  Cherub  heads  without 
wings,  and  of  a blue  color,  emerging  from  golden 
clouds.  And  in  RaphaeFs  Madonna  di  San  Sisto  the 
whole  background  is  formed  of  Cherubim  and  Sera- 
phim of  a uniform  delicate  bluish  tinge,  as  if  composed 
of  air,  and  melting  away  into  an  abyss  of  golden  glory, 
the  principal  figures  standing  relieved  against  this  flood 
of  living  love  and  light  — beautiful ! So  are  the  Cher- 
ubim with  many-colored  wings  which  float  in  the  firma- 
ment in  Perugino^s  Coronation  of  the  Virgin ; but  none 
of  these  can  be  regarded  as  so  theologically  correct  as 
the  fiery-red  and  bright-blue  Seraphim  and  Cherubim, 
of  which  are  formed  the  hierarchies  and  glories  which 
figure  in  the  early  pictures,  the  stained  glass,  the 
painted  sculpture,  and  the  illuminated  MSS.  from  the 
tenth  to  the  sixteenth  century. 

The  next  five  choirs  of  angels,  the  Thrones,  Domi- 
nations, Princedoms,  Virtues,  Powers,^  though  classed 
and  described  with  great  exactitude  by  the  theologians, 

* Vasari,  p.  648,  FI.  edit. 


56  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

have  not  been  very  accurately  discriminated  in  Art.  In 
some  examples  the  Thrones  have  green  wings,  a fiery 
aureole,  and  bear  a throne  in  their  hands.  The  Domi- 
nations, Virtues,  and  Powers,  sometimes  bear  a globe 
and  a long  sceptre  surmounted  by  a cross.  The  Prin- 
cipalities, according  to  the  Greek  formula,  should  bear 
a branch  of  lily.  The  Archangels  are  figured  as  war- 
riors, and  carry  a sword  with  the  point  upwards.  The 
angels  are  robed  as  deacons,  and  carry  a wand.  In 
one  of  the  ancient  frescos  in  the  Cathedral  at  Orvieto 
there  is  a complete  hierarchy  of  angels,  so  arranged  as 
to  symbolize  the  Trinity,  each  of  the  nine  choirs  being 
composed  of  three  angels,  but  the  Seraphim  only  are 
distinguished  by  their  red  color  and  priority  of  place. 
In  the  south  porch  of  the  Cathedral  of  Chartres,  each 
of  the  nine  orders  is  represented  by  two  angels:  in 
other  instances,  one  angel  only  represents  the  order  to 
which  he  belongs,  and  nine  angels  represent  the  whole 
hierarchy.^  Where,  however,  we  meet  with  groups  or 
rows  of  angels,  as  in  the  Greek  mosaics  and  the  earliest 
frescos,  all  alike,  all  with  the  tiara,  the  long  sceptre- 
like wands,  and  the  orb  of  sovereignty,  I believe  these 
to  represent  the  Powers  and  Princedoms  of  Heaven. 
The  Archangels  alone,  as  we  shall  see  presently,  have 
distinct  individual  names  and  attributes  assigned  to 
them. 

The  angels,  generally,  have  the  human  form ; are 
winged;  and  are  endowed  with  immutable  happiness 
and  perpetual  youth,  because  they  are  ever  in  the  pres- 
ence of  Him  with  whom  there  is  no  change  and  no 

* I saw  in  the  palace  of  the  Bishop  of  Norwich  an  elegant  little 
bas-relief  in  alabaster,  exhibiting  the  nine  choirs,  each  repre- 
sented by  a single  angel.  The  first  (the  Seraphim)  hold  the  sacra- 
mental cup  ; the  Cherubim,  a book  ; the  Thrones,  a throne  ; the 
Principalities,  a bunch  of  lilies  ; the  Archangels  are  armed.  The 
other  attributes  are  not  clearly  made  out.  The  figures  have  been 
ornamented  with  painting  and  gilding,  now  partially  worn  off, 
and  the  style  is  of  the  early  part  of  the  fifteenth  century.  It  ap- 
peared to  me  to  have  formed  one  of  the  compartments  of  an  altar- 
piece. 


ANGELS,  57 

time.  They  are  direct  emanations  of  the  beauty  0/ 
the  Eternal  mind,  therefore  beautiful ; created,  there- 
fore, not  eternal,  but  created  perfect,  and  immortal  in 
their  perfection : they  are  always  supposed  to  be  mas- 
culine ; perhaps  for  the  reason  so  beautifully  assigned 
by  Madame  de  Stael,  ‘'because  the  union  of  power 
with  purity  {la  force  avec  la  purete)  constitutes  all  that 
we  mortals  can  imagine  of  perfection.’^  There  is  no 
sucn  thing  as  an  old  angel,  and  therefore  there  ought 
to  be  no  such  thing  as  an  infant  angel.  The  introduc- 
tion of  infant  angels  seems  to  have  arisen  from  the  cus- 
tom of  representing  the  regenerate  souls  of  men  as 
new-born  infants,  and  perhaps . also  from  the  words  of 
our  Saviour,  when  speaking  of  children  : “ I say  unto 
you,  their  angels  do  always  behold  the  face  of  my 
Father  which  is  in  heaven.”  Such  representations, 
when  religiously  and  poetically  treated  as  spirits  of 
love,  intelligence,  and  innocence,  are  of  exquisite  beau- 
ty, and  have  a significance  which  charms  and  elevates 
the  fancy ; but  from  this,  the  true  and  religious  concep- 
tion, the  Italian  putti  and  puttini,  and  the  rosy,  chubby 
babies  of  the  Flemish  school,  are  equally  remote. 

In  early  Art,  the  angels  in  the  bloom  of  adolescence 
are  always  amply  draped ; at  first,  in  the  classical  tunic 
and  pallium ; afterwards  in  long  linen  vestments  with 
the  alba  and  stole,  as  levites  or  deacons ; or  as  princes, 
with  embroidered  robes  and  sandals,  and  jewelled 
crowns  or  fillets.  Such  figures  are  common  in  the 
Byzantine  mosaics  and  pictures.  The  expression,  in 
these  early  representations,  is  usually  calm  and  impas- 
sive. Angels  partially  draped  in  loose,  fluttering,  mere- 
tricious attire,  poised  in  attitudes  upon  clouds,  or  with 
features  animated  by  human  passion,  or  limbs  strained 
by  human  effort,  are  the  innovations  of  more  modern 
Art.  White  is,  or  ought  to  be,  the  prevailing  color  in 
angelic  draperies,  but  red  and  blue  of  various  shades 
are  more  frequent ; green  often  occurs ; and  in  the 
Venetian  pictures,  yellow,  or  rather  saffron-colored, 
robes  are  not  unfrequent.  In  the  best  examples  of 


58  SACBED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

Italian  Art  the  tintis,  though  varied,  are  tender  and  del- 
icate ; all  dark,  heavy  colors  and  violent  contrasts  of 
color  are  avoided.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  early  Ger- 
man school  the  angels  have  rich,  heavy,  voluminous 
draperies  of  the  most  intense  and  vivid  colors,  often 
jewelled  and  embroidered  with  gold.  Might,  in  such 
garments,  seems  as  difficult  as  it  would  be  to  swim  in 
coronation  robes. 

But,  whatever  be  the  treatment  as  to  character,  lin- 
eaments, or  dress,  wings  are  almost  invariably  the  at- 
tribute of  the  angelic  form.  As  emblematical  append- 
ages, these  are  not  merely  significant  of  the  character 
of  celestial  messengers,  for,  from  time  immemorial, 
wings  have  been  the  Oriental  and  Egyptian  symbol  of 
power,  as  well  as  of  swiftness ; of  the  spiritual  and 
aerial,  in  contradistinction  to  the  human  and  the  earth- 
ly. Thus,  with  the  Egyptians,  the  winged  globe  sig- 
nified power  and  eternity,  that  is,  the  Godhead ; a bird, 
with  a human  head,  signified  the  soul ; and  nondescript 
creatures,  with  wings,  abound  not  only  in  the  Egyptian 
paintings  and  hieroglyphics,  but  also  in  the  Chaldaic 
and  Babylonian  remains,  in  the  Lycian  and  Nineveh 
marbles,  and  on  the  gems  and  other  relics  of  the  Gnos- 
tics. I have  seen  on  the  Gnostic  gems  figures  with 
four  wings,  two  springing  from  the  shoulders  and  two 
from  the  loins.  The  portentous  figure,  from  the  ruins 
of  Nineveh,  is  similarly  constructed. 

In  Etruscan  Art  all  their  divinities  are  winged ; and 
where  Venus  is  represented  with  wings,  as  in  many  of 
the  antique  gems  (and  by  Correggio  in  imitation  of 
them),*  these  brilliant  wings  are  not,  as  some  have  sup- 
posed, emblematical  of  the  transitoriness , but  of  the 
might,  the  majesty,  and  the  essential  divinity  of  beauty. 
In  Scripture,  the  first  mention  of  Cherubim  with  wings 
is  immediately  after  the  departure  of  the  Israelites  from 
Egypt  (Exod.  xxxi.  2).  Bezaleel,  the  first  artist  whose 
name  is  recorded  in  the  world’s  history,  and  who  ap- 
pears to  have  been,  like  the  greatest  artists  of  modern 

* As  in  the  picture  in  our  National  Gallery,  No.  10. 


ANGELS. 


59 


times,  at  once  architect,  sculptor,  and  painter,  probably 
derived  his  figures  of  Cherubim  with  outstretched 
wings,  guarding  the  mercy-seat,  from  those  Egyptian 
works  of  art  with  which  the  Israelites  must  have  been 
familiarized.  Clement  of  Alexandria  is  so  aware  of 
the  relative  similitude,  that  he  supposes  the  Egyptians 
to  have  borrowed  from  the  Israelites,  which  is  obviously 
the  reverse  of  the  truth.  How  far  the  Cherubim,  which 
figure  in  the  Biblical  pictures  of  the  present  day,  re- 
semble the  carved  Cherubim  of  Bezaleel  we  cannot 
tell,  but  probably  the  idea  and  the  leading  forms  are 
the  same ; for  the  ark,  we  know,  was  carried  into  Pal- 
estine; these  original  Cherubim  were  the  pattern  of 
those  which  adorned  the  temple  of  Solomon,  and  these, 
again,  were  the  prototype  after  which  the  imagery  of 
the  second  temple  was  fashioned.  Although  in  Scrip- 
ture the  shape  under  which  the  celestial  ministers  ap- 
peared to  man  is  nowhere  described,  except  in  the 
visions  of  the  prophets  (Dan.  x.  5),  and  there  with  a 
sort  of  dreamy,  incoherent  splendor,  rendering  it  most 
perilous  to  clothe  the  image  placed  before  the  fancy  in 
definite  forms,  still  the  idea  of  w'ings,  as  the  angelic 
appendages,  is  conveyed  in  many  places  distinctly,  and 
occasionally  with  a picturesque  vividness  which  inspires 
and  assists  the  artist.  For  instance,  in  Daniel,  ch.  vii., 
'^they  had  wings  like  a fowl.^^  In  Ezekiel,  ch.  i.,  their 
wings  were  stretched  upward  when  they  flew ; when 
they  stood,  they  let  down  their  wings.^^  I heard  the 
noise  of  their  wings  as  the  noise  of  great  waters.'^  And 
in  Zechariah,  ch.  v.,  I looked,  and  behold  there  came 
out  two  women,  and  the  wind  was  in  their  wings,  for 
they  had  wings  like  the  wings  of  a stork. And  Isaiah, 
ch.  vi.,  in  the  description  of  the  Seraphim,  Each  one 
had  six  wings;  with  twain  he  covered  his  face,  and 
with  twain  he  covered  his  feet,  and  with  twain  he  did 
fly.^'  By  the  early  artists  this  description  was  followed 
out  in  a manner  more  conscientious  and  reverential 
than  poetical. 

They  were  content  with  a symbol.  But  mark  how 


6o  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


Milton,  more  daring,  could  paint  from  the  same  origi- 
nal: — 

“ A seraph  winged ; six  wings  he  wore  to  shade 
His  lineaments  divine  ; the  pair  that  clad 
Each  shoulder  broad,  came  mantling  o’er  his  breast 
With  regal  ornament  •,  the  middle  pair 
Girt  like  a starry  zone  his  waist,  and  round 
Skirted  his  loins  and  thighs  with  downy  gold 
And  colors  dipped  in  heaven  5 the  third  his  feet 
Shadowed  from  either  heel  with  feathered  mail, 
Sky-tinctured  grain.” 

I have  sometimes  thought  that  Milton,  in  his  descrip- 
tions of  angels,  was  not  indebted  merely  to  the  notions 
of  the  old  theological  writers,  interpreted  and  embel- 
lished by  his  own  fancy : may  he  not,  in  his  wander- 
ings through  Italy,  have  beheld  with  kindling  sympathy 
some  of  those  glorious  creations  of  Italian  Art,  which, 
when  I saw  them,  made  me  break  out  into  his  own 
divine  language  as  the  only  fit  utterance  to  express 
those  forms  in  words  ? — But,  to  return  : Is  it  not  a 
mistake  to  make  the  wings,  the  feathered  appendages 
of  the  angelic  form,  as  like  as  possible  to  real  wings,  — 
the  wings  of  storks,  or  the  wings  of  swans,  or  herons, 
borrowed  for  the  occasion  ? Some  modern  painters, 
anxious  to  make  wings  look  ‘^natural,^^  have  done  this; 
Delaroche,  for  instance,  in  his  St.  Cecilia.  Infinitely 
more  beautiful  and  consistent  are  the  nondescript  wings 
which  the  early  painters  gave  their  angels  : — large,  — 
so  large,  that  when  the  glorious  creature  is  represented 
as  at  rest,  they  droop  from  the  shoulders  to  the  ground ; 
with  long,  slender  feathers,  eyed  sometimes  like  the 
peacock’s  train,  bedroppcd  with  gold  like  the  pheasant’s 
breast,  tinted  with  azure  and  violet  and  crimson, 
colors  dipped  in  heaven,”  — they  are  really  angel- 
wings,  not  bird-wings. 

Orcagna’s  angels  in  the  Campo  Santo  are,  in  this 
respect,  peculiarly  poetical.  Their  extremities  are 
wings  instead  of  limbs  ; and  in  a few  of  the  old  Italian 
and  German  painters  of  the  fifteenth  century  we  find 


ANGELS. 


6i 


angels  whose  extremities  are  formed  of  light,  waving 
folds  of  pale  rose-colored  or  azure  drapery,  or  of  a sort 
of  vapory  cloud,  or,  in  some  instances,  of  flames. 
The  cherubim  and  seraphim  which  surround  the  simil- 
itude of  Jehovah  when  he  appears  to  Moses  in  the 
burning  bush,*  are  an  example  of  the  sublime  and 
poetical  significance  which  may  be  given  to  this  kind 
of  treatment.  They  have  heads  and  human  features 
marvellous  for  intelligence  and  beauty ; their  hair, 
their  wings,  their  limbs,  end  in  lambent  fires ; they  are 
celestial  Ardors  bright,^^  which  seem  to  have  being 
without  shape. 

Dante’s  angels  have  less  of  dramatic  reality,  less  of 
the  aggrandized  and  idealized  human  presence,  than 
Milton’s.  They  are  wondrous  creatures.  Some  of 
them  have  the  quaint,  fantastic  picturesqueness  of  old 
Italian  Art  and  the  Albert  Durer  school ; for  instance, 
those  in  the  Purgatorio,  with  their  wings  of  a bright 
green,  and  their  green  draperies,  verde  come  fo- 
gliette,”  kept  in  a perpetual  state  of  undulation  by  the 
breeze  created  by  the  fanning  of  their  wings,  with 
features  too  dazzling  to  be  distinguished : — 

“ Ben  discerneva  in  lor  la  testa  bionda, 

Ma  nelle  facce  P occhio  si  smarria 
Come  virtu  ch’  a troppo  si  confonda.”  t 

And  the  Shape  glowing  red  as  in  a furnace,  with  an  air 
from  the  fanning  of  its  wings,  fresh  as  the  first  breath 
of  wind  in  a May  morning,  and  fragrant  as  all  its 
flowers.”  That  these  and  other  passages  scattered 
through  the  Purgatorio  and  the  Paradiso  assisted  the 
fancy  of  the  earlier  painters  in  portraying  their  angelic 
Glories  and  winged  Beatitudes,  I have  little  doubt ; but, 
on  the  other  hand,  the  sublime  angel  in  the  Inferno,  — 
he  who  comes  speeding  over  the  waters  with  vast  pinions 
like  sails,  sweeping  the  evil  spirits  in  heaps  before  him, 
<<  like  frogs  before  a serpent,”  and  with  a touch  of  his 

* Vatican  : Raphael’s  fresco, 
t V.  Purg.  c.  viii.  3 Par.  c.  xxxi.  j Pnrg.  c.  xxiv. 


62 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


wand  making  the  gates  of  the  city  of  Dis  fly  open  ; 
then,  with  a countenance  solemn  and  majestic,  and 
quite  unmindful  of  his  worshipper,  as  one  occupied  by 
higher  matters,  turning  and  soaring  away,  — this  is 
quite  in  the  sentiment  of  the  grand  old  Greek  and 
Italian  mosaics,  which  preceded  Dante  by  some  cen- 
turies.* 

But  besides  being  the  winged  messengers  of  God  to 
man,  the  deputed  regents  of  the  stars,  the  rulers  of  the 
elements,  and  the  dispensers  of  the  fate  of  nations, 
angels  have  another  function  in  which  we  love  to  con- 
template them.  They  are  the  choristers  of  heaven. 
Theirs  is  the  privilege  to  sound  that  hymn  of  praise 
which  goes  up  from  this  boundless  and  harmonious 
universe  of  suns  and  stars  and  worlds  and  rejoicing 
creatures,  towards  the  God  who  created  them  : theirs 
is  the  music  of  the  spheres,  — 

“ They  sing,  and  singing  in  their  glory  move  ” ; 

they  tune  divine  instruments,  named  after  those  of 
earth^s  harmonies,  — 

“ The  harp,  the  solemn  pipe 
And  dulcimer,  all  organs  of  sweet  stop. 

All  sounds  on  fret  by  string  or  golden  wire, 

. . . . And  with  songs 

And  choral  symphonies,  day  without  night. 

Circle  his  throne  rejoicing.” 

There  is  nothing  more  beautiful,  more  attractive,  in 
Art  than  the  representations  of  angels  in  this  character. 
Sometimes  they  form  a chorus  round  the  glorifled 
Saviour,  when,  after  his  sorrow  and  sacriflee  on  earth, 
he  takes  his  throne  in  heaven ; or,  when  the  crown  is 

* The  Cherubim  in  the  upper  lights  of  the  painted  windows  at 
St.  Michael’s,  Coventry,  and  at  Cirencester,  are  represented  each 
standing  on  a white  wheel  with  eight  spokes.  They  have  six 
wings,  of  peacocks’  feathers,  of  a rich  yellow  color.  A white 
cross  surmounts  the  forehead,  and  both  arms  and  legs  are  covered 
with  short  plumage.  The  extremities  are  human  and  bare.  At 
Cirencester  the  Cherubim  hold  a book  j at  Coventry,  a scroll. 


ANGELS, 


63 

placed  on  the  head  of  the  Maternal  Virgin  in  glory, 
pour  forth  their  triumphant  song,  and  sound  their  sil- 
ver clarions  on  high  : sometimes  they  stand  or  kneel 
before  the  Madonna  and  Child,  or  sit  upon  the  steps  of 
her  throne,  singing  — with  such  sweet,  earnest  faces  ! 
or  playing  on  their  golden  lutes,  or  piping  celestial 
symphonies ; or  they  bend  in  a choir  from  the  opening 
heavens  above,  and  welcome,  with  triumphant  songs, 
the  liberated  soul  of  the  saint  or  martyr ; or  join  in  St. 
Cecilia’s  Hymn  of  praise  : but  whatever  the  scene,  in 
these  and  similar  representations,  they  appear  in  their 
natural  place  and  vocation,  and  harmonize  enchantingly 
with  all  our  feelings  and  fancies  relative  to  these  angelic 
beings,  made  up  of  love  and  music. 

Most  beautiful  examples  of  this  treatment  occur  both 
in  early  painting  and  sculpture ; and  no  one  who  has 
wandered  through  churches  and  galleries,  with  feeling 
and  observation  awake,  can  fail  to  remember  such.  It 
struck  me  as  characteristic  of  the  Venetian  school,  that 
the  love  of  music  seemed  to  combine  with  the  sense 
of  harmony  in  color ; nowhere  have  I seen  musical 
angels  so  frequently  and  so  beautifully  introduced  : and 
whereas  the  angelic  choirs  of  Fiesole,  Ghirlandajo,  and 
Raphael,  seem  to  be  playing  as  an  act  of  homage  for 
the  delight  of  the  Divine  Personages,  those  of  Vivarini 
and  Bellini  and  Palma  appear  as  if  enchanted  by  their 
own  music ; and  both  together  are  united  in  the  grand 
and  beautiful  angels  of  Melozzo  da  Forli,  particularly 
in  one  who  is  bending  over  a lute,  and  another  who, 
with  a triumphant  and  ecstatic  expression,  strikes  the 
cymbals.*  Compare  the  cherubic  host  who  are  pouring 
forth  tlieir  hymns  of  triumph,  blowing  their  uplifted 
trumpets,  and  touching  immortal  harps  and  viols  in 
Angelico’s  Coronation,”  f or  in  Signorelli’s  Para- 
dise,” I with  those  lovely  Venetian  choristers,  the  piping 
boys,  myrtle-crowned,  who  are  hymning  Bellini’s  Ma- 

* In  the  sacristy  of  the  Vatican,  f In  the  Louvre. 

I In  the  Cathedral  at  Orvieto. 


64  SACRED  AED  LEGENDARY  ART. 

donna,  * or  those  who  are  touching  the  lute  to  the  praise 
and  glory  of  St.  Ambrose  in  Vivarini^s  most  beautiful 
picture ; you  will  feel  immediately  the  distinction  in 
point  of  sentiment. 

The  procession  of  chanting  angels  which  once  sur- 
mounted the  organ  in  the  Duomo  of  Florence  is  a 
perfect  example  of  musical  angels  applied  to  the  pur- 
pose of  decoration.  Perhaps  it  was  well  to  remove  this 
exquisite  work  of  art  to  a place  of  safety,  where  it  can 
be  admired  and  studied  as  a work  of  art ; but  the  re- 
moval has  taken  from  it  the  appropriate  expression. 
How  they  sing  ! — when  the  tones  of  the  organ  burst 
forth,  we  might  have  fancied  we  heard  their  divine 
voices  through  the  stream  of  sound  ! The  exquisite 
little  bronze  choristers  round  the  high  altar  of  St.  An- 
tonio in  Padua  are  another  example ; Florentine  in 
elegance  of  form,  Venetian  in  sentiment,  intent  upon 
their  own  sweet  song ! 

There  is  a third  function  ascribed  to  these  angelic 
natures,  which  brings  them  even  nearer  to  our  sym- 
pathies : they  are  the  deputed  guardians  of  the  just  and 
innocent.  St.  Raphael,  whose  story  I shall  presently 
relate,  is  the  prince  of  the  guardian  angels.  The  Jews 
held  that  the  angels  deputed  to  Lot  were  his  guardian 
angels. t The  fathers  of  the  Christian  Church  taught 
that  every  human  being,  from  the  hour  of  his  birth  to 
that  of  his  death,  is  accompanied  by  an  angel  appointed 
to  watch  over  him.  The  Mahometans  give  to  each  of 
us  a good  and  an  evil  angel ; but  the  early  Christians 
supposed  us  to  be  attended  each  by  a good  angel  only, 
who  undertakes  that  office,  not  merely  from  duty  to 
God,  and  out  of  obedience  and  great  humility,  but  as 
inspired  by  exceeding  charity  and  love  towards  his 
human  charge.  It  would  require  the  tongues  of  angels 
themselves  to  recite  all  that  we  owe  to  these  benign  and 
vigilant  guardians.  They  watch  by  the  cradle  of  the 


* In  the  Frari  at  Venice. 


t Gen.  xviii.,  xlviii.  16. 


ANGELS. 


65 

new-born  babe,  and  spread  their  celestial  wings  round 
the  tottering  steps  of  infancy.  If  the  path  of  life  be 
difficult  and  thorny,  and  evil  spirits  work  us  shame 
and  woe,  they  sustain  us  ; they  bear  the  voice  of  our 
complaining,  of  our  supplication,  of  our  repentance,  up 
to  the  foot  of  God’s  throne,  and  bring  us  back  in  re- 
turn a pitying  benediction,  to  strengthen  and  to  cheer. 
When  passion  and  temptation  strive  for  the  mastery, 
they  encourage  us  to  resist : when  we  conquer,  they 
crown  us  ; when  we  falter  and  fail,  they  compassionate 
and  grieve  over  us ; when  we  are  obstinate  in  polluting 
our  own  souls,  and  perverted  not  only  in  act,  but  in 
will,  they  leave  us,  — and  woe  to  them  that  are  so  left ! 
But  the  good  angel  does  not  quit  his  charge  until  his 
protection  is  despised,  rejected,  and  utterly  repudiated. 
Wonderful  the  fervor  of  their  love,  — wonderful  their 
meekness  and  patience,  — who  endure  from  day  to  day 
the  spectacle  of  the  unveiled  human  heart  with  all  its 
miserable  weaknesses  and  vanities,  its  inordinate  desires 
and  selfish  purposes  ! Constant  to  us  in  death,  they 
contend  against  the  powers  of  darkness  for  the  emanci- 
pated spirit : they  even  visit  the  suffering  sinner  in 
purgatory ; they  keep  alive  in  the  tormented  spirit 
faith  and  hope,  and  remind  him  that  the  term  of  ex- 
piation will  end  at  last.  So  Dante  (Purg.,  c.  viii.) 
represents  the  souls  in  purgatory  as  comforted  in  their 
misery ; and  (which  has  always  seemed  to  me  a touch 
of  sublime  truth  and  tenderness)  as  rejoicing  over  those 
who  were  on  earth  conspicuous  for  the  very  virtues 
wherein  themselves  were  deficient.  When  at  length 
the  repentant  soul  is  sufficiently  purified,  the  guardian 
angel  bears  it  to  the  bosom  of  the  Saviour. 

The  earlier  painters  and  sculptors  did  not,  appar- 
ently, make  the  same  use  of  guardian  angels  that  we 
so  often  meet  with  in  works  of  Modern  Art.  Poetical 
allegories  of  angels  guiding  the  steps  of  childhood,  ex- 
tending a shield  over  innocence,  watching  by  a sick-bed, 
do  not,  I think,  occur  before  the  seventeenth  century ; 
at  least  I have  not  met  with  such.  The  ancient  mas- 
5 


66 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


ters,  who  really  believed  in  the  personal  agency  of  our 
angelic  guardians,  beheld  them  with  awe  and  reverence, 
and  reserved  their  presence  for  great  and  solemn  occa- 
sions. The  angel  who  presents  the  pious  votary  to 
Christ  or  the  Virgin,  who  crowns  St.  Cecilia  and  St. 
Valerian  after  their  conquest  over  human  weakness ; 
the  angel  who  cleaves  the  air  “ with  flight  precipitant^' 
to  break  the  implements  of  torture,  or  to  extend  the 
palm  to  the  dying  martyr,  victorious  over  pain  ; the 
angels  who  assist  and  carry  in  their  arms  the  souls  of 
the  just ; arc,  in  these  and  all  similar  examples,  repre- 
sentations of  guardian  angels. 

Such,  then,  are  the  three  great  functions  of  the 
angelic  host : they  are  Messengers,  Choristers,  and 
Guardians.  But  angels,  without  reference  to  their  in- 
dividuality or  their  ministry,  — with  regard  only  to 
their  species  and  their  form,  as  the  most  beautiful  and 
the  most  elevated  of  created  essences,  as  intermediate 
between  heaven  and  earth,  — are  introduced  into  all 
works  of  art  which  have  a sacred  purpose  or  character, 
and  must  be  considered,  not  merely  as  decorative  acces- 
sories, but  as  a kind  of  presence,  as  attendant  witnesses ; 
and,  like  the  chorus  in  the  Greek  tragedies,  looking  on 
where  they  are  not  actors.  In  architectural  decoration, 
the  cherubim  with  which  Solomon  adorned  his  temple 
have  been  the  authority  and  example  (1  Kings  vi.  23). 
“ Within  the  oracle  he  made  two  cherubims,  each  ten 
cubits  high,  and  with  wings  five  cubits  in  length,  [the 
angels  in  the  old  Christian  churches  on  each  side  of  the 
altar  correspond  with  these  cherubim,]  and  he  over- 
laid the  cherubims  with  gold,  and  carved  all  the  walls 
of  the  house  with  carved  figures  of  cherubims,  and  he 
made  doors  of  olive-tree,  and  he  carved  on  them  figures 
of  cherubims."  So,  in  Christian  art  and  architecture, 
angels,  with  their  beautiful  cinctured  heads  and  out- 
stretched wings  and  flowing  draperies,  fill  up  every 
space.  The  instances  are  so  numerous  that  they  will 
occur  to  every  one  who  has  given  a thought  to  the  sub- 


ANGELS, 


67 


ject.  I may  mention  the  frieze  of  angels  in  Henry  the 
Seventh’s  Chapel,  merely  as  an  example  at  hand,  and 
which  can  be  referred  to  at  any  moment ; also  the 
angels  round  the  choir  of  Lincoln  Cathedral,  of  which 
there  are  fine  casts  in  the  Crystal  Palace  at  Sydenham ; 
and  in  some  of  the  old  churches  in  Saxony  which 
clearly  exhibit  the  influence  of  Byzantine  Art,  — for 
instance,  at  Freyberg,  Merseburg,  Naumburg,  — angels 
with  outspread  wings  fill  up  the  spandrils  of  the  arches 
along  the  nave. 

But,  in  the  best  ages  of  Art,  angels  were  not  merely 
employed  as  decorative  accessories  ; they  had  their  ap- 
propriate place  and  a solemn  significance  as  a part  of 
that  theological  system  which  the  edifice,  as  a whole, 
represented. 

As  a celestial  host  surrounding  the  throne  of  the 
Trinity ; or  of  Christ,  as  redeemer  or  as  judge ; or  of 
the  Virgin  in  glory ; or  the  throned  Madonna  and 
Child  ; their  place  is  immediately  next  to  the  Divine 
Personages,  and  before  the  Evangelists. 

In  what  is  called  a Liturgy  of  angels,  they  figure  in 
procession  on  each  side  of  the  choir,  so  as  to  have  the 
appearance  of  approaching  the  altar : they  wear  the 
stole  and  alba  as  deacons,  and  bear  the  implements  of 
the  mass.  In  the  Cathedral  of  Rheims  there  is  a range 
of  colossal  angels  as  a grand  procession  along  the  vaults 
of  the  nave,  who  appear  as  approaching  the  altar ; 
these  bear  not  only  the  gospel,  the  missal,  the  sacra- 
mental cup,  the  ewer,  the  taper,  the  cross,  &c.,  but  also 
the  attributes  of  sovereignty  celestial  and  terrestrial: 
one  carries  the  sun,  another  the  moon,  a third  the 
kingly  sceptre,  a fourth  the  globe,  a fifth  the  sword ; 
and  all  these,  as  they  approach  the  sanctuary,  they 
seem  about  to  place  at  the  feet  of  Christ,  who  stands 
there  as  priest  and  king  in  glory.  Statues  of  angels 
in  an  attitude  of  worship  on  each  side  of  the  altar, 
as  if  adoring  the  sacrifice,  — or  bearing  in  triumph 
the  instruments  of  Christ’s  passion,  the  cross,  the 
nails,  the  spear,  the  crown  of  thorns,  — or  carrying 


68  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


tapers,  — are  more  common,  and  must  be  regarded 
not  merely  as  decoration,  but  as  a presence  in  the  high 
solemnity. 

In  the  Cathedral  of  Auxerre  may  be  seen  angels 
attending  on  the  triumphant  coming  of  Christ;  and, 
which  is  most  singular,  they,  as  well  as  Christ,  are  on 
horseback. 

When,  in  subjects  from  Scripture  history,  angels 
figure  not  merely  as  attendants  and  spectators,  but  as 
personages  necessary  to  the  action,  they  are  either 
ministers  of  the  divine  wrath  or  of  the  divine  mercy ; 
agents  of  destruction  or  agents  of  help  and  good  coun- 
sel. As  all  tliese  instances  belong  to  the  historical 
scenes  of  the  Old  or  the  New  Testament,  they  will  be 
considered  separately,  and  I shall  confine  myself  here 
to  a few  remarks  on  the  introduction  and  treatment  of 
angels  in  some  subjects  of  peculiar  interest. 

In  relating  <<  the  expulsion  of  Adam  and  Eve  from 
Paradise,^^  it  is  not  said  that  an-  angel  was  the  imme- 
diate agent  of  the  divine  wrath,  but  it  is  so  represented 
in  works  of  Art.  In  the  most  ancient  treatment  I have 
met  with,*  a majestic  armed  angel  drives  forth  the  de- 
linquents, and  a cherub  with  six  wings  stands  as  guard 
before  the  gate.  I found  the  same  motijr  in  the  sculp- 
tures on  the  fa9ade  of  the  Duomo  at  Orvieto,  by  Nic- 
colb  Pisano.  In  another  instance,  an  ancient  Saxon 
miniature,  the  angel  is  represented,  not  as  driving  them 
forth,  but  closing  the  door  against  them.  But  these 
are  exceptions  to  the  usual  mode  of  treatment,  which 
seldom  varies ; the  angel  is  not  represented  in  wrath, 
but  calm,  and  stretches  forth  a sword,  which  is  often 
{literally  rendering  the  text)  a waving,  lambent  fiame. 
I remember  an  instance  in  which  the  preternatural 
sword,  <<  turning  every  way,^^  has  the  form  of  a wheel 
of  flames. 

An  angel  is  expressly  introduced  as  a minister  of 
wrath  in  the  story  of  Balaam,  in  which  I have  seen  no 

* MS.  10th  century,  Paris,  Bibl.  Nationale. 


ANGELS. 


69 

deviation  from  the  obvious  prosaic  treatment,  rendering 
the  text  literally,  **  and  the  ass  saw  the  angel  of  the 
Lord  standing  in  the  way,  and  his  sword  drawn  in  his 
hand/^ 

The  destroying  angel,  leaning  from  heaven,  pre- 
sents to  David  three  arrows,  from  which  to  choose,  — 
war,  pestilence,  or  famine/^  I have  found  this  subject 
beautifully  executed  in  several  MSS.,  for  instance,  in 
the  Heures  d’Anne  de  Bretagne  ; also  in  pictures 
and  in  prints. 

The  destroying  angel  sent  to  chastise  the  arrogance 
of  David  is  beheld  standing  between  heaven  and  earth 
with  his  sword  stretched  over  Jerusalem  to  destroy  it.” 
Of  this  sublime  vision  I have  never  seen  any  but  the 
meanest  representations  ; none  of  the  great  masters 
have  treated  it ; perhaps  Rembrandt  might  have  given 
us  the  terrible  and  glorious  angel  standing  like  a shadow 
in  the  midst  of  his  own  intense  irradiation,  David  fallen 
on  his  face,  and  the  sons  of  Oman  hiding  themselves 
by  their  rude  threshing-floor,  with  that  wild  mixture  of 
the  familiar  and  the  unearthly  in  which  he  alone  has 
succeeded. 

The  chastisement  of  Heliodorus  ” has  given  occa- 
sion to  the  sublimest  composition  in  which  human 
genius  ever  attempted  to  embody  the  conception  of  the 
supernatural, — Raphael’s  fresco  in  the  Vatican.  St. 
Michael,  the  protecting  angel  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  is 
supposed  to  have  been  the  minister  of  divine  wrath  on 
this  occasion ; but  Raphael,  in  omitting  the  wings,  and 
all  exaggeration  or  alteration  of  the  human  figure,  has 
shown  how  unnecessary  it  was  for  him  to  have  recourse 
to  the  prodigious  and  impossible  in  form,  in  order  to 
give  the  supernatural  in  sentiment.  The  unearthly 
warrior  and  his  unearthly  steed,  — the  weapon  in  his 
hand,  which  is  not  a sword  to  pierce,  nor  a club  to 
strike,  but  a sort  of  mace,  of  which,  as  it  seems,  a touch 
would  annihilate ; the  two  attendant  spirits,  who  come 
gliding  above  the  marble  floor,  with  their  hair  streaming 
back  with  the  rapidity  of  their  aerial  motion,  — are  in 


70 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


the  very  spirit  of  Dante,  and,  as  conceptions  of  super- 
human power,  superior  to  anything  in  pictured  form 
which  Art  has  bequeathed  to  us. 

In  calling  to  mind  the  various  representations  of  the 
angels  of  the  Apocalypse  let  loose  for  destruction,  one 
is  tempted  to  exclaim,  **  O for  a warning  voice ! ” 
When  the  Muse  of  Milton  quailed,  and  fell  ten  thou- 
sand fathom  deep  into  Bathos,  what  could  be  expected 
from  human  invention  ? In  general,  where  this  subject 
is  attempted  in  pictures,  we  find  the  angels  animated, 
like  those  of  Milton  in  the  war  of  heaven,  with  fierce 
desire  of  battle,'^  breathing  vengeance,  wrath,  and  fury. 
So  Albert  Durer,  in  those  wonderful  scenes  of  his 

Apocalypse,^^  has  exhibited  them  ; but  some  of  the 
early  Italians  show  them  merely  impassive,  conquering 
almost  without  effort,  punishing  without  anger.  The 
immediate  instruments  of  the  wrath  of  God  in  the  day 
of  judgment  are  not  angels,  but  devils  or  demons, 
generally  represented  by  the  old  painters  with  every 
possible  exaggeration  of  hideousness,  and  as  taking  a 
horrible  and  grotesque  delight  in  their  task.  The 
demons  are  fallen  angels,  their  deformity  a consequence 
of  their  fall.  Thus,  in  some  very  ancient  represen- 
tations of  the  expulsion  of  Lucifer  and  his  rebel  host, 
the  degradation  of  the  form  increases  with  their  dis- 
tance from  heaven.^  Those  who  are  uppermost  are 
still  angels  ; they  bear  the  aureole,  the  wings,  and  the 
tunic ; they  have  not  yet  lost  all  their  original  bright- 
ness : those  beloAV  them  begin  to  assume  the  bestial 
form  : the  fingers  become  talons,  the  heads  become 
horned ; and  at  last,  as  they  touch  the  confines  of  the 
gulf  of  hell,  the  transformation  is  seen  complete,  from 
the  luminous  angel,  into  the  abominable  and  monstrous 
devil,  with  serpent  tail,  claws,  bristles,  and  tusks.  This 
gradual  transformation,  as  they  descend  into  the  gulf 
of  sin,  has  a striking  allegorical  significance  which  can- 
not escape  the  reader.  In  a Greek  MS.  of  the  ninth 


* MS.  13th  century,  Breviaire  de  St.  Louia. 


ANGELS, 


71 


century,*  bearing  singular  traces  of  antique  classical  art 
in  the  conception  and  attributes  of  the  figures,  I found 
both  angels  and  demons  treated  in  a style  quite  peculiar 
and  poetical.  The  angels  are  here  gigantic,  majestic, 
Jove-like  figures,  with  great  wings.  The  demons  are 
also  majestic  graceful  winged  figures,  but  painted  of  a 
dusky  gray  color  (it  may  originally  have  been  black). 
In  one  scene,  where  Julian  the  Apostate  goes  to  seek 
the  heathen  divinities,  they  are  thus  represented,  that  is, 
as  black  angels ; showing  that  the  painter  had  here 
assumed  the  devils  or  demons  to  be  the  discrowned  and 
fallen  gods  of  the  antique  world. 

These  are  a few  of  the  most  striking  instances  of 
angels  employed  as  ministers  of  wratli.  Angels,  as 
ministers  of  divine  grace  and  mercy,  — 

“ Of  all  those  acts  which  Deity  supreme, 

Doth  ease  its  heart  of  love  in,”  — 

occur  much  more  frequently. 

The  ancient  heresy,  that  God  made  use  of  the  agency 
of  angels  in  the  creation  of  the  world,  and  of  mankind, 
I must  notice  here,  because  it  has  found  its  way  into 
Art ; for  example,  in  an  old  miniature  which  represents 
an  angel  having  before  him  a lump  of  clay,  a kind  of 
ebauche  of  humanity,  which  he  appears  to  be  moulding 
with  his  hands,  while  the  Almighty  stands  by  directing 
the  work.f  This  idea,  absurd  as  it  may  appear,  is  not 
perhaps  more  absurd  than  the  notion  of  those  who 
would  represent  the  Great  First  Cause  as  always  busied 
in  fashioning  or  altering  the  forms  in  his  visible  crea- 
tion, like  a potter  or  any  other  mechanic.  But  as  we 
are  occupied  at  present  with  the  Scriptural,  not  the 
legendary  subjects,  I return  to  the  Old  Testament. 
The  first  time  that  we  read  of  an  angel  sent  as  a mes- 
senger of  mercy,  it  is  for  the  comfort  of  poor  Hagar ; 

* Paris,  Bibl.  Nat.,  No.  510.  G.  MS. 

t As  in  the  legend  of  Prometheus.  (Plato,  Protag.,  p.  320.) 


72 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


when  he  found  her  weeping  by  the  spring  of  water  in 
the  wilderness,  because  her  mistress  had  afflicted  her  : 
and  again,  when  she  was  cast  forth  and  her  boy  fainted 
for  thirst.  In  the  representation  of  these  subjects,  I do 
not  know  a single  instance  in  which  the  usual  angelic 
form  has  not  been  adhered  to.  In  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac, 
<<  the  angel  of  the  Lord  calls  to  Abraham  out  of 
heaven. This  subject,  as  the  received  type  of  the 
sacrifice  of  the  Son  of  God,  was  one  of  the  earliest  in 
Christian  Art.  We  find  it  on  the  sarcophagi  of  the 
third  and  fourth  centuries ; but  in  one  of  the  latest  only 
have  I seen  a personage  introduced  as  staying  the  hand 
of  Abraham,  and  this  personage  is  without  wings.  In 
painting,  the  angel  is  sometimes  in  the  act  of  taking 
the  sword  out  of  Abraham's  hand,  which  expresses  the 
nature  of  his  message  : or  he  lays  one  hand  on  his  arm, 
and  with  the  other  points  to  the  ram  which  was  to  re- 
place the  sacrifice,  or  brings  the  ram  in  his  arms  to  the 
altar ; but,  whatever  the  action,  the  form  of  the  angelic 
messenger  has  never  varied  from  the  sixth  century. 

In  the  visit  of  the  angels  to  Abraham,  there  has  been 
a variety  caused  by  the  wording  of  the  text.  It  is  not 
said  that  three  angels  visited  Abraham,  yet  in  most  of 
the  ancient  representations  the  three  celestial  guests  are 
winged  angels.  I need  hardly  observe  that  these  three 
angels  are  assumed  to  be  a figure  of  the  Trinity,  and 
in  some  old  illuminations  the  interpretation  is  not  left 
doubtful,  the'  angels  being  characterized  as  the  three 
persons  of  the  Trinity,  wearing  each  the  cruciform 
nimbus  : two  of  them,  young  and  beardless,  stand 
behind ; the  third,  representing  the  Father,  has  a beard, 
and,  before  Himy  Abraham  is  prostrated.  Beautiful 
for  grace  and  simplicity  is  the  winged  group  by  Ghi- 
berti, in  which  the  three  seem  to  step  and  move  together 
as  one.  More  modern  artists  have  given  us  the  celes- 
tial visitants  merely  as  men.  Pre-eminent  in  this  style 
of  conception  are  the  pictures  of  Raphael  and  Murillo. 
Raphael  here,  as  elsewhere,  a true  poet,  has  succeeded 
in  conveying,  with  exquisite  felicity,  the  sentiment  of 


ANGELS, 


73 


power,  of  a heavenly  presence,  and  of  a mysterious 
significance.  The  three  youths,  who  stand  linked  to- 
gether hand  in  hand  before  the  Patriarch,  with  such  an 
air  of  benign  and  superior  grace,  want  no  wings  to 
show  us  that  they  belong  to  the  courts  of  heaven,  and 
have  but  just  descended  to  earth, — 

“ So  lively  shines 

In  them  divine  resemblance,  and  such  grace 

The  hand  that  formed  them  on  their  shape  hath  poured  ! ” 

Murillo,  on  the  contrary,  gives  us  merely  three 
young  men,  travellers,  and  has  set  aside  wholly 
both  the  angelic  and  the  mystic  character  of  the  vis- 
itants.^ 

The  angels  who  descend  and  ascend  the  ladder  in 
Jacob’s  dream  are  in  almost  every  instance  represented 
in  the  usual  form  ; sometimes  a few,t  — sometimes  in 
multitudes,!  — sometimes  as  one  only,  who  turns  to 
bless  the  sleeper  before  he  ascends  ; § and  the  ladder  is 
sometimes  a flight,  or  a series  of  flights,  of  steps  ascend- 
ing from  earth  to  the  empyrean.  But  here  it  is  Eem- 
brandt  who  has  shown  himself  the  poet ; the  ladder  is 
a slanting  stream  of  light ; the  angels  are  mysterious, 
bird-like,  luminous  forms,  which  emerge  one  after  an- 
other from  a dazzling  fount  of  glory,  and  go  floating 
up  and  down,  — so  like  a dream  made  visible  ! — In 
Middle-Age  Art,  this  vision  of  Jacob  occurs  very  rarely. 
I shall  have  to  return  to  it  w’hen  treating  of  the  subjects 
from  the  Old  Testament. 

In  the  New  Testament  angels  are  much  more  fre- 
quently alluded  to  than  in  the  Old ; more  as  a reality, 
less  as  a vision  ; in  fact,  there  is  no  important  event 
throughout  the  Gospels  and  Acts  in  which  angels  do 
not  appear,  either  as  immediate  agents,  or  as  visible  and 

* Sutherland  Gallery. 

t As  in  Raphael’s  fresco  in  the  Vatican. 

1 As  in  the  picture  by  Allston,  painted  for  Lord  Egremont,  and 
now  at  Petworth. 

§ As  in  a picture  by  F.  Bol. 


74  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

present ; and  in  scenes  where  they  are  not  distinctly 
said  to  be  visibly  present,  they  are  assumed  to  be  so  in- 
visibly, St.  Paul  having  said  expressly  that  their 
ministry  is  continual.'^  It  is  therefore  with  undeniable 
propriety  that,  in  works  of  Art  representing  the  in- 
cidents of  the  Gospels,  angels  should  figure  as  a per- 
petual presence,  made  visible  under  such  forms  as 
custom  and  tradition  have  consecrated. 

I pass  over,  for  the  present,  the  grandest,  the  most 
important  mission  of  an  angel,  the  announcement 
brought  by  Gabriel  to  the  blessed  Virgin.  I shall 
have  to  treat  it  fully  hereafter.*  The  angel  who 
appears  to  Joseph  in  a dream,  and  the  angel  who 
commands  him  to  flee  into  Egypt,  was  in  both  cases 
probably  the  same  angel  who  hailed  Mary  as  blessed 
above  all  women  ; but  we  are  not  told  so ; and  accord- 
ing to  some  commentators  it  was  the  guardian  angel 
of  Joseph  who  appeared  to  him.  In  these  and  other 
scenes  of  the  New  Testament,  in  which  angels  are 
described  as  direct  agents,  or  merely  as  a chorus  of 
ministering  attendants,  they  have  the  usual  form,  en- 
hanced by  as  much  beauty  and  benignity  and  aerial 
grace  as  the  fancy  of  the  artist  could  bestow  on  them. 
In  the  Nativity  they  are  seen  hovering  on  high,  pour- 
ing forth  their  song  of  triumph ; they  hold  a scroll  in 
their  hands  on  which  their  song  is  written ; in  general 
there  are  three  angels  ; the  first  sings,  Gloria  in  excelsis 
Deo  ! the  second,  Et  in  terra  pax  ! the  third,  Hominihus 
honoe  voluntatis  ! but  in  some  pictures  the  three  angels 
are  replaced  by  a numerous  choir,  who  raise  the  song 
of  triumph  in  the  skies,  while  others  are  seen  kneeling 
round  and  adoring  the  Divine  Infant. 

The  happiest,  the  most  beautiful,  instance  I can  re- 
member of  this  particular  treatment  is  the  little  chapel 
in  the  Riccardi  Palace  at  Florence.  This  chapel  is  in 
the  form  of  a Greek  cross,  and  the  frescos  arc  thus 
disposed : — 


* See  “ Legends  of  the  Madonna.’ 


ANGELS, 


7S 


Altar. 


4 5 


3 


1 


3 


1 


3 


1 


2 2 


Door. 


The  walls  1,  2,  and  3 are  painted  with  the  journey  of 
the  Wise  Men,  who,  with  a long  train  of  attendants 
mounted  on  horseback  and  gorgeously  apparelled,  are 
seen  travelling  over  hill  and  dale  led  by  the  guiding 
star.  Over  the  altar  was  the  Nativity  (now  removed) ; 
on  each  side  (4,  5)  is  seen  a choir  of  angels,  perhaps 
fifty  in  number,  rejoicing  over  the  birth  of  the  Re- 
deemer : some  kneel  in  adoration,  with  arms  folded 
over  the  bosom,  others  offer  flowers ; some  come  dan- 
cing forward  with  flowers  in  their  hands  or  in  the  lap  of 
their  robe  ; others  sing  and  make  celestial  music  : they 
have  glories  round  their  heads,  all  inscribed  alike, 
‘‘  Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo.”  The  naive  grace,  the  beau- 
tiful devout  expression,  the  airy  movements  of  these 
lovely  beings,  melt  the  soul  to  harmony  and  joy.  The 
chapel  having  been  long  shut  up,  and  its  existence 
scarcely  remembered,  these  paintings  are  in  excellent 
preservation  ; and  I saw  nothing  in  Italy  that  more 
impressed  me  with  admiration  of  the  genuine  feeling 
and  piety  of  the  old  masters.  The  choral  angels  of 
Angelico  da  Fiesole  already  described  are  not  more 
pure  in  sentiment,  and  are  far  less  animated,  than 
these.* 

* For  several  curious  and  interesting  particulars  relative  to 
these  subjects,  see  the  “Legends  of  the  Madonna.” 


>y6  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

But  how  different  from  both  is  the  ministry  of  the 
angels  in  some  of  the  pictures  of  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries,  both  German  and  Italian  ! The 
Virgin  Mary  is  washing  her  Divine  Infant ; angels 
dry  the  clothes,  or  pour  out  water ; Joseph  is  planing 
a board,  and  angels  assist  the  Infant  Saviour  in  sweep- 
ing up  the  chips.  In  a beautiful  little  Madonna  and 
Child,  in  Prince  Wallerstein’s  collection,  an  angel  is 
playing  with  the  Divine  Infant,  is  literally  his  play- 
fellow ; a very  graceful  idea,  of  which  I have  seen  but 
this  one  instance. 

In  the  Flight  into  Egypt,  an  angel  often  leads  the 
ass.  In  the  Riposo,  a subject  rare  before  the  fifteenth 
century,  angels  offer  fruit  and  flowers,  or  bend  down 
the  branches  of  the  date-tree,  that  Joseph  may  gather 
the  fruit ; or  weave  the  choral  dance,  hand  in  hand, 
for  the  delight  of  the  Infant  Christ,  while  others  make 
celestial  music,  — as  in  Vandyck’s  beautiful  picture  in 
Lord  Ashburton’s  collection.  After  the  Temptation, 
they  minister  to  the  Saviour  in  the  wilderness,  and 
spread  for  him  a table  of  refreshment,  — 

“ Celestial  food  divine, 

Ambrosial  fruit,  fetched  from  the  tree  of  life, 

And  from  the  fount  of  life  ambrosial  drink.” 

It  is  not  said  that  angels  were  visibly  present  at  the 
baptism  of  Christ;  but  it  appears  to  me  that  they 
ought  not,  therefore,  to  be  supposed  absent,  and  that 
there  is  a propriety  in  making  them  attendants  on  this 
solemn  occasion.  They  are  not  introduced  in  the  very 
earliest  examples,  those  in  the  catacombs  and  sarcoph- 
agi ; nor  yet  in  the  mosaics  of  Ravenna ; because 
angels  were  then  rarely  figured,  and  instead  of  the 
winged  angel  we  have  the  sedge-crowned  river  god, 
representing  the  Jordan.  In  the  Greek  formula,  they 
are  required  to  be  present  in  an  attitude  of  respect  ” : 
no  mention  is  made  of  their  holding  the  garments  of 
our  Saviour ; but  it  is  certain  that  in  Byzantine  Art, 
and  generally  from  the  twelfth  century,  this  has  been 


ANGELS, 


77 


the  usual  mode  of  representing  them.  According  to 
the  Fathers,  our  Saviour  had  no  guardian  angel ; be- 
cause he  did  not  require  one : notwithstanding  the 
sense  usually  given  to  the  text,  *‘He  shall  give  his 
angels  charge  concerning  thee,  lest  at  any  time  thou 
dash  thy  foot  against  a stone,”  the  angels,  they  affirm, 
were  not  the  guardians,  but  the  servants,  of  Christ ; 
and  hence,  I presume,  the  custom  of  representing 
them,  not  merely  as  present,  but  as  ministering  to 
him  during  the  baptism.  The  gates  of  San  Paolo 
(tenth  century)  afford  the  most  ancient  example  I 
have  met  with  of  an  angel  holding  the  raiment  of 
the  Saviour : there  is  only  one  angel.  Giotto  intro- 
duces two  graceful  angels  kneeling  on  the  bank  of  the 
river,  and  looking  on  with  attention.  The  angel  in 
RaphaeFs  composition  bows  his  head,  as  if  awe-struck 
by  the  divine  recognition  of  the  majesty  of  the  Re- 
deemer ; and  the  reverent  manner  in  which  he  holds 
the  vestment  is  very  beautiful.  Other  examples  will 
here  suggest  themselves  to  the  reader,  and  I shall  re- 
sume the  subject  when  treating  of  the  life  of  our  Sav- 
iour. 

In  one  account  of  our  Saviour’s  agony  in  the  garden 
of  Gethsemane,  it  is  expressly  said  that  an  angel  ap- 
peared unto  him  out  of  heaven,  strengthening  him  ” ; 
therefore,  where  this  awful  and  pathetic  subject  has 
been  attempted  in  Art,  there  is  propriety  in  introdu- 
cing a visible  angel.  Notwithstanding  the  latitude  thus 
allowed  to  the  imagination,  or  perhaps  for  that  very 
reason,  the  greatest  and  the  most  intelligent  painters 
have  here  fallen  into  strange  errors,  both  in  conception 
and  in  taste.  For  instance,  is  it  not  a manifest  impro- 
priety to  take  the  Scripture  phrase  in  a literal  sense, 
and  place  a cup  in  the  hand  of  the  angel  1 Is  not  the 
word  cup  here,  as  elsewhere,  used  as  a metaphor,  sig- 
nifying the  destiny  awarded  by  Divine  will,  as  Christ 
had  said  before,  “ Ye  shall  drink  of  my  cup,”  and  as 
we  say,  ‘‘his  cup  overflowed  with  blessings”?  The 


78  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

angel,  therefore,  who  does  not  bend  from  heaven  to 
announce  to  him  the  decree  he  knew  full  well,  nor  to 
present  the  cup  of  bitterness,  but  to  strengthen  and 
comfort  him,  should  not  bear  the  cup  ; — still  less  the 
cross,  the  scourge,  the  crown  of  thorns,  as  in  many 
pictures. 

Where  our  Saviour  appears  bowed  to  the  earth, 
prostrate,  half  swooning  with  the  anguish  of  that 
dread  moment,  and  an  angel  is  seen  sustaining  him, 
there  is  a true  feeling  of  the  real  meaning  of  Scrip- 
ture ; but  even  in  such  examples  the  effect  is  often 
spoiled  by  an  attempt  to  render  the  scene  at  once 
more  mystical  and  more  palpable.  Tlius  a painter 
equally  remarkable  for  the  purity  of  his  taste  and 
deep  religious  feeling,  Niccolb  Poussin,  has  represented 
Christ,  in  his  agony,  supported  in  the  arms  of  an 
angel,  while  a crowd  of  child-angels,  very  much  like 
Cupids,  appear  before  him  with  the  instruments  of  the 
Passion  ; ten  or  twelve  bear  a huge  cross  ; others  hold 
the  scourge,  the  crown  of  thorns,  the  nails,  the  sponge, 
the  spear,  and  exhibit  them  before  him,  as  if  these  were 
the  images,  these  the  terrors,  which  could  overwhelm 
with  fear  and  anguish  even  the  human  nature  of  such 
a Being ! ^ It  seems  to  me  also  a mistake,  when  the 
angel  is  introduced,  to  make  him  merely  an  accessory 
(as  Raphael  has  done  in  one  of  his  early  pictures),  a 
little  figure  in  the  air  to  help  the  meaning  : since  the 
occasion  was  worthy  of  angelic  intervention,  in  a visi- 
ble shape,  bringing  divine  solace,  divine  sympathy,  it 
should  be  represented  under  a form  the  most  mighty 
and  the  most  benign  that  Art  could  compass  ; — but 
has  it  been  so  ? I can  recollect  no  instance  in  which 
the  failure  has  not  been  complete.  If  it  be  said  that  to 
render  the  angelic  comforter  so  superior  to  the  sorrow- 
ing and  prostrate  Redeemer  would  be  to  detract  from 
Ills  dignity  as  the  principal  personage  of  the  scene, 
and  thus  violate  one  of  the  first  rules  of  Art,  I think 

* The  picture  is,  I suspect,  not  by  Poussin,  but  by  Stella.  There 
is  another,  similar,  by  Guido  j Louvre,  1057. 


ANGELS. 


79 


differently,  — I think  it  could  do  so  only  in  unskilful 
hands.  Represented  as  it  ought  to  be,  and  might  be, 
it  would  infinitely  enhance  the  idea  of  that  unimagina- 
ble anguish  which,  as  we  are  told,  was  compounded  of 
the  iniquities  and  sorrows  of  all  humanity  laid  upon 
Him.  It  was  not  the  pang  of  the  Mortal,  but  the  Im- 
mortal, which  required  the  presence  of  a ministering 
spirit  sent  down  from  heaven  to  sustain  him. 

In  the  Crucifixion,  angels  are  seen  lamenting,  wring- 
ing their  hands,  averting  or  hiding  their  faces.  In  the 
old  Greek  crucifixions,  one  angel  bears  the  sun,  an- 
other the  moon,  on  each  side  of  the  cross  : — 

“ Dim  sadness  did  not  spare, 

That  time,  celestial  visages.” 

Michael  Angelo  gives  us  two  unwinged  colossal-look- 
ing angel  heads,  which  peer  out  of  heaven  in  the  back- 
ground of  his  Crucifixion  in  a manner  truly  supernat- 
ural, as  if  they  sympathized  in  the  consummation,  but 
in  awe  rather  than  in  grief. 

Angels  also  receive  in  golden  cups  the  blood  which 
flows  from  the  wounds  of  our  Saviour.  This  is  a rep- 
resentation which  has  the  authority  of  some  of  the  most 
distinguished  and  most  spiritual  among  the  old  paint- 
ers, but  it  is  to  my  taste  particularly  unpleasing  and 
unpoetical.  Raphael,  in  an  early  picture,  the  only  cru- 
cifixion he  ever  painted,  thus  introduces  the  angels ; 
and  this  form  of  the  angelic  ministry  is  a mystical  ver- 
sion of  the  sacrifice  of  the  Redeemer  not  uncommon  in 
Italian  and  German  pictures  of  the  sixteenth  century. 

As  the  Scriptural  and  legendary  scenes  in  which 
angels  form  the  poetical  machinery  will  be  discussed 
hereafter  in  detail  as  separate  subjects,  I shall  conclude 
these  general  and  preliminary  remarks  with  a few  words 
on  the  characteristic  style  in  which  the  principal  paint- 
ers have  set  forth  the  angelic  forms  and  attributes. 

It  appears  that,  previous  to  the  end  of  the  fourth 
century,  there  were  religious  scruples  which  forbade 
the  representation  of  angels,  arising  perhaps  from  the 


8o 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


scandal  caused  in  the  early  Church  by  the  worship 
paid  to  these  supernatural  beings,  and  so  strongly  op- 
posed by  the  primitive  teachers.  We  do  not  find  on 
any  of  the  Christian  relics  of  the  first  three  centuries, 
neither  in  the  catacombs,  nor  on  the  vases  or  the  sar- 
cophagi, any  figure  which  could  be  supposed  to  repre- 
sent what  we  call  an  angel.  On  one  of  the  latest  sar- 
cophagi, we  find  little  winged  figures,  but  evidently  the 
classical  winged  genii,  used  in  the  classical  manner  as 
ornament  only.*  In  the  second  council  of  Nice,  John 
of  Thessalonica  maintained  that  angels  have  the  human 
form,  and  may  be  so  represented ; and  the  Jewish  doc- 
tors had  previously  decided  that  God  consulted  his 
angels  when  he  said,  Let  us  make  man  after  our 
image,”  and  that  consequently  we  may  suppose  the 
angels  to  be  like  men,  or,  in  the  words  of  the  prophet, 
<<  like  unto  the  similitude  of  the  sons  of  men.”  f (Dan. 
X.  16.) 

But  it  is  evident  that,  in  the  first  attempt  at  angelic 
effigy,  it  was  deemed  necessary,  in  giving  the  human 
shape,  to  render  it  as  superhuman,  as  imposing,  as 
possible  : colossal  proportions,  mighty  overshadowing 
wings,  kingly  attributes,  these  we  find  in  the  earliest 
figures  of  angels  which  I believe  exist,  — the  mosaics 
in  the  church  of  Santa  Agata  at  Ravenna  (a.  d.  400). 
Christ  is  seated  on  a throne  (as  in  the  early  sarcoph- 
agi) : he  holds  the  Gospel  in  one  hand,  and  with  the 
left  gives  the  benediction.  An  angel  stands  on  each 
side  : they  have  large  wings,  and  bear  a silver  wand, 
the  long  sceptre  of  the  Grecian  kings  ; they  are  robed 
in  classical  drapery,  but  wear  the  short  pallium  (the 

garb  succinct  for  flight  ”) ; their  feet  are  sandalled, 
as  prepared  for  a journey,  and  their  hair  bound  by  a 
fillet.  Except  in  the  wings  and  short  pallium,  they 
resemble  the  figures  of  Grecian  kings  and  priests  in 
the  ancient  bas-reliefs. 

This  was  the  truly  majestic  idea  of  an  angelic  pres- 

* Ciampini,  p.  131.  a.  d.  394.  t Greek  MS.  a.  d.  867. 


ANGELS. 


8i 


ence  (in  contradistinction  to  the  angelic  emblem),  which, 
well  or  ill  executed,  prevailed  during  the  first  ten  cen- 
turies. In  the  MS.*  already  referred  to  as  containing 
such  magnificent  examples  of  this  Godlike  form  and 
bearing,  one  group  less  ruined  than  most  of  the  others 
is  Jacob  wrestling  with  the  angel.  The  drawing  is 
wonderful  for  the  period,  that  of  Charlemagne.  The 
mighty  Being  grasps  the  puny  mortal,  who  was  per- 
mitted for  a while  to  resist  him  ! — ‘‘He  touched  the 
hollow  of  Jacob's  thigh,  and  it  was  out  of  joint,"  — 
the  action  is  as  significant  as  possible.  The  drapery 
of  the  angel  is  white ; the  fillet  binding  the  hair,  the 
sandals,  and  the  wings,  of  pm’ple  and  gold. 

From  the  eleventh  to  the  thirteenth  century  the 
forms  of  the  angels  became,  like  all  things  in  the  then 
degraded  state  of  Byzantine  Art,  merely  conventional. 
They  are  attired  either  in  the  imperial  or  the  sacerdotal 
vestments,  as  already  described,  and  are  richly  orna- 
mented, tasteless  and  stiff,  large  without  grandeur,  and 
in  general  ill  drawn. 

On  the  revival  of  Art,  we  find  the  Byzantine  idea 
of  angels  everywhere  prevailing.  The  angels  in  Ci- 
mabue’s  famous  “ Virgin  and  Child  enthroned " are 
grand  creatures,  rather  stern ; but  this  arose,  I think, 
from  his  inability  to  express  beauty.  The  colossal 
angels  at  Assisi  (a.d.  1270),  solemn  sceptred  kingly 
forms,  all  alike  in  action  and  attitude,  appeared  to  me 
magnificent. 

In  the  angels  of  Giotto  (a.d.  1310)  we  see  the  com- 
mencement of  a softer  grace  and  a purer  taste,  further 
developed  by  some  of  his  scholars.  Bejjiozzo  Gozzoli 
and  Orcagna  have  left  in  the  Campo  Santo  examples  of 
the  most  graceful  and  fanciful  treatment.  Of  Benozzo's 
angels  in  the  Riccardi  palace  I have  spoken  at  length. 
His  master  Angelico  (worthy  the  name  !)  never  reached 
the  same  power  of  expressing  the  rapturous  rejoicing 
of  celestial  beings,  but  his  conception  of  the  angelic 

* Paris,  Bib.  Nat.,  No.  510. 

6 


82 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


nature  remains  unapproached,  unapproachable  (a.  d. 
1430)  ; it  is  only  his,  for  it  was  the  gentle,  passionless, 
refined  nature  of  the  recluse  which  stamped  itself  there. 
Angelico’s  angels  are  unearthly,  not  so  much  in  form 
as  in  sentiment ; and  superhuman,  not  in  power,  but 
in  purity.  In  other  hands,  any  imitation  of  his  soft 
ethereal  grace  would  become  feeble  and  insipid.  With 
their  long  robes  falling  round  their  feet,  and  drooping 
many-colored  wings,  they  seem  not  to  fly  or  to  walk, 
but  to  float  along,  smooth  sliding  without  step.” 
Blessed,  blessed  creatures  ! love  us,  only  love  us,  — for 
we  dare  not  task  your  soft,  serene  Beatitude  by  asking 
you  to  help  us  ! 

There  is  more  sympathy  with  humanity  in  Francia’s 
angels  : they  look  as  if  they  could  weep,  as  well  as 
love  and  sing. 

Most  beautiful  are  the  groups  of  adoring  angels  by 
Francesco  Granacci,^  so  serenely  tender,  yet  with  a 
touch  of  grave  earnestness  which  gives  them  a character 
apart : they  have  the  air  of  guardian  angels,  who  have 
discharged  their  trust,  and  to  whom  the  Supreme  utter- 
ance has  voiced  forth,  <<  Servant  of  God,  well  done ! ” 

The  angels  of  Botticelli  are  often  stiff,  and  those  of 
Ghirlaudajo  sometimes  fantastic ; but  in  both  I have 
met  with  angelic  countenances  and  forms  which,  for  in- 
tense and  happy  expression,  can  never  be  forgotten. 
One  has  the  feeling,  however,  that  they  used  human 
models,  — the  portrait  face  looks  through  the  angel  face. 
This  is  still  more  apparent  in  Mantegna  and  Filippo 
Lippi.  As  we  might  have  expected  from  the  character 
of  Fra  Filipno,  his  angels  want  refinement : they  have 
a boyish  Iook,  with  their  crisp  curled  hair,  and  their 
bold  beauty ; yet  some  of  them  are  magnificent  for 
that  sort  of  angel-beings  supposed  to  have  a volition  of 
their  own.  Andrea  del  Sarto’s  angels  have  the  same 
fault  in  a less  degree  : they  have,  if  not  a bold,  yet  a 
self-willed  boyish  expression. 

* In  the  Academy  at  Florence : they  must  have  formed  the  side 
wings  to  an  enthroned  Madonna  and  Child. 


ANGELS, 


83 

Perugino’s  angels  convey  the  idea  of  an  unalterable 
sweetness  : those  of  his  earlier  time  have  much  natural 
grace,  those  of  his  later  time  are  mannered.  In  early 
Venetian  Art  the  angels  are  charming  : they  are  happy, 
affectionate  beings,  with  a touch  of  that  voluptuous 
sentiment  afterwards  the  characteristic  of  the  Venetian 
school. 

In  the  contemporary  German  school,  angels  are 
treated  in  a very  extraordinary  and  original  style. 
One  cannot  say  that  they  are  earthly,  or  common- 
place, still  less  are  they  beautiful  or  divine ; but  they 
have  great  simplicity,  earnestness,  and  energy  of  action. 
They  appear  to  me  conceived  in  the  Old  Testament 
spirit,  with  their  grand,  stiff,  massive  draperies,  their 
jewelled  and  golden  glories,  their  wings  <<  eyed  like  the 
peacock,  speckled  like  the  pard,’^  their  intense  expres- 
sion, and  the  sort  of  personal  and  passionate  interest 
they  throw  into  their  ministry.  This  is  the  character 
of  Albert  Durer’s  angels  especially;  those  of  Martin 
Schoen  and  Lucas  v.  Leyden  are  of  a gentler  spirit. 

Leonardo  da  Vinci^s  angels  do  not  quite  please  me, 
elegant,  refined,  and  lovely  as  they  are  : — ‘‘  methinks 
they  smile  too  much.”  By  his  scholar  Luini  there  are 
some  angels  in  the  gallery  of  the  Brera,  swinging  cen- 
sers and  playing  on  musical  instruments,  which,  with 
the  peculiar  character  of  the  Milanese  school,  combine 
all  the  grace  of  a purer,  loftier  nature. 

Correggio's  angels  are  grand  and  lovely,  but  they 
are  like  children  enlarged  and  sublimated,  not  like 
spirits  taking  the  form  of  children  : where  they  smile 
it  is  truly,  as  Annibal  Caracci  expresses  it,  con  ima 
natumlezza  e simplicita  che  innamora  e sforza  a ridere  con 
loro^* ; but  the  smile  in  many  of  Correggio's  angel 
heads  has  something  sublime  and  spiritual,  as  well  as 
simple  and  natural. 

And  Titian's  angels  impress  me  in  a similar  manner 

— I mean  those  in  the  glorious  Assumption  at  Venice 

— with  their  childish  forms  and  features,  but  with  an 
expression  caught  from  beholding  the  face  of  ^<our 


84  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

Father  that  is  in  heaven  : it  is  glorified  infancy.  I 
remember  standing  before  this  picture,  contemplating 
those  lovely  spirits  one  after  another,  until  a thrill 
came  over  me  like  that  which  I felt  when  Mendelssohn 
played  the  organ,  and  I became  music  while  I listened. 
The  face  of  one  of  those  angels  is  to  the  face  of  a child 
just  what  that  of  the  Virgin  in  the  same  picture  is  com- 
pared with  the  fairest  of  the  daughters  of  earth : it  is 
not  here  superiority  of  beauty,  but  mind  and  music 
and  love,  kneaded ^ as  it  were,  into  form  and  color. 

I have  thought  it  singular,  and  somewhat  unaccount- 
able, that  among  the  earliest  examples  of  undraped  boy- 
angels  are  those  of  Fra  Bartolomeo,  — he  who  on  one 
occasion,  at  the  command  of  Savonarola,  made  a bon- 
fire of  all  the  undressed  figures  he  could  lay  his  hands 
on. 

But  Raphael,  excelling  in  all  things,  is  here  excel- 
lent above  all : his  angels  combine,  in  a higher  degree 
than  any  other,  the  various  faculties  and  attributes  in 
which  the  fancy  loves  to  clothe  these  pure,  immortal, 
beatified  creatures.  The  angels  of  Giotto,  of  Benozzo, 
of  Fiesole,  are,  if  not  female,  feminine  ; those  of  Filippo 
Lippi,  and  of  Andrea  Mantegna,  masculine ; but  you 
cannot  say  of  those  of  Raphael  that  they  are  masculine 
or  feminine.  The  idea  of  sex  is  wholly  lost  in  the 
blending  of  power,  intelligence,  and  grace.  In  his 
earlier  pictures  grace  is  the  predominant  characteristic, 
as  in  the  dancing  and  singing  angels  in  his  Coronation 
of  the  Virgin.*  In  his  later  pictures  the  sentiment  in 
his  ministering  angels  is  more  spiritual,  more  dignified. 
As  a perfect  example  of  grand  and  poetical  feeling,  I 
may  cite  the  angels  as  “ Regents  of  the  Planets,’^  in  the 
Capella  Chigiana.f  The  cupola  represents  in  a circle 
the  creation  of  the  solar  system,  according  to  the  theo- 
logical and  astronomical  (or  rather  astrological)  notions 
which  then  prevailed,  — a hundred  years  before  “ the 
starry  Galileo  and  his  woes.^'  In  the  centre  is  the 

* Gallery  of  the  Vatican.  t S.  Maria  del  Popolo,  Rome. 


ANGELS, 


H 

Creator;  around,  in  eight  compartments,  we  have, 
first,  the  angel  of  the  celestial  sphere,  who  seems  to  be 
listening  to  the  divine  mandate,  <<  Let  there  be  lights 
in  the  firmament  of  heaven then  follow,  in  their 
order,  the  Sun,  the  Moon,  Mercury,  Venus,  Mars, 
Jupiter,  and  Saturn.  The  name  of  each  planet  is  ex- 
pressed by  its  mythological  representative ; the  Sun 
by  Apollo,  the  Moon  by  Diana : and  over  each  pre- 
sides a grand  colossal  winged  spirit  seated  or  reclining 
on  a portion  of  the  zodiac  as  on  a throne.  The  union 
of  the  theological  and  the  mythological  attributes  is  in 
the  classical  taste  of  the  time,  and  quite  Miltonic.^  In 
Raphaers  child-angels,  the  expression  of  power  and 
intelligence,  as  well  as  innocence,  is  quite  wonderful ; 
for  instance,  look  at  the  two  angel-boys  in  the  Dresden 
Madonna  di  San  Sisto,  and  the  angels,  or  celestial 
genii,  who  bear  along  the  Almighty  when  he  appears 
to  Noah.t  No  one  has  expressed  like  Raphael  the 
action  of  flight,  except  perhaps  Rembrandt.  The 
angel  who  descends  to  crown  Santa  Felicita  cleaves 
the  air  with  the  action  of  a swallow ; I and  the  angel 
in  Rembrandt's  Tobit  soars  like  a lark  with  upward 
motion,  spurning  the  earth., 

Michael  Angelo  rarely  gave  wings  to  his  angels ; I 
scarcely  recollect  an  instance,  except  the  angel  in  the 
Annunciation : and  his  exaggerated  human  forms,  his 
colossal  creatures,  in  which  the  idea  of  power  is  con- 
veyed through  attitude  and  muscular  action,  are,  to  my 
taste,  worse  than  unpleasing.  My  admiration  for  this 
wonderful  man  is  so  profound  that  I can  afford  to  say 
this.  His  angels  are  superhuman,  but  hardly  angelic : 

* The  mosaics  in  the  dome  of  the  Chigi  chapel  are  so  ill  lighted 
that  it  is  diflBcult  to  observe  them  in  detail,  but  they  have  lately 
been  rendered  cheaply  accessible  in  the  fine  set  of  engravings  by 
Gruner,  an  artist  who  in  our  day  has  revived  the  pure  and  correct 
design  and  elegant  execution  of  Marc  Antonio. 

t As  in  the  fresco  in  the  Vatican. 

I See  the  engraving  under  this  title  by  Marc  Antonio  *,  it  is  prop- 
erly St.  Cecilia,  and  not  St.  Felicite. 


86 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


and  while  in  Raphaers  angels  we  do  not  feel  the  want 
•of  wings,  we  feel  while  looking  at  those  of  Michael 
Angelo  that  not  even  the  “ sail-broad  vans  ” with  which 
Satan  labored  through  the  surging  abyss  of  chaos 
could  suffice  to  lift  those  Titanic  forms  from  earth,  and 
sustain  them  in  mid-air.  The  group  of  angels  over 
the  Last  Judgment,  flinging  their  mighty  limbs  about, 
and  those  that  surround  the  descending  figure  of  Christ 
in  the  conversion  of  St.  Paul,  may  be  referred  to 
here  as  characteristic  examples.  The  angels,  blowing 
their  trumpets,  puff  and  strain  like  so  many  troopers. 
Surely  this  is  not  angelic  : there  may  be  power,  great 
imaginative  and  artistic  power,  exhibited  in  the  con- 
ception of  form,  but  in  the  beings  themselves  there  is 
more  of  effort  than  of  power  : serenity,  tranquillity, 
beatitude,  ethereal  purity,  spiritual  grace,  are  out  of  the 
question. 

The  later  followers  of  his  school,  in  their  angelic  as 
in  their  human  forms  caricatured  their  great  master, 
and  became,  to  an  offensive  degree,  forced,  extravagant, 
and  sensual. 

When  we  come  to  the  revival  of  a better  taste  under 
the  influence  of  the  Caracci,  we  find  the  angels  of  that 
school  as  far  removed  from  the  early  Christian  types  as 
were  their  apostles  and  martyrs.  They  have  often  great 
beauty,  consummate  elegance,  but  bear  the  same  rela- 
tion to  the  religious  and  ethereal  types  of  the  early 
painters  that  the  angels  of  Tasso  bear  to  those  of  Dante. 
Turn,  for  instance,  to  the  commencement  of  the  Ge- 
rusalemrne  Liberata,  where  the  angel  is  deputed  to  carry 
to  Godfrey  the  behest  of  the  Supreme  Being.  The 
picture  of  the  angel  is  distinctly  and  poetically  brought 
before  us  ; he  takes  to  himself  a form  between  boyhood 
and  youth  ; his  waving  curls  are  crowned  with  beams 
of  light ; he  puts  on  a pair  of  wings  of  silver  tipped 
with  gold,  with  which  he  cleaves  the  air,  the  clouds, 
the  skies ; he  alights  on  Mount  Lebanon,  and  poises 
himself  on  his  balanced  wings,  — 


ANGELS. 


87 


“ E si  libro  su  1’  adeguate  penne.” 

This  is  exactly  the  angel  which  figures  in  the  best 
pictures  of  the  Caracci  and  Guido : he  is  supremely 
elegant,  and  nothing  more. 

I must  not  here  venture  on  minute  criticism,  as  re- 
gards distinctive  character  in  the  crowds  of  painters 
which  sprung  out  of  the  eclectic  school.  It  would 
carry  us  too  far  ; but  one  or  two  general  remarks  will 
lead  the  reader’s  fancy  along  the  path  I would  wish 
him  to  pursue.  I would  say,  therefore,  that  the  angels 
of  Ludovico  have  more  of  sentiment,  those  of  Annibal 
more  of  power,  those  of  Guido  more  of  grace  : and  of 
Guido  it  may  be  said  that  he  excels  them  all  in  the 
expression  of  adoration  and  humility ; see,  for  instance, 
the  adoring  seraphs  in  Lord  Ellesmere’s  Immaculate 
Conception.”  The  angels  of  Domenichino,  Guercino, 
and  Albano  are  to  me  less  pleasing.  Domenichino’s 
angels  are  merely  human.  I never  saw  an  angel  in 
one  of  Guercino’s  pictures  that  had  not,  with  the  merely 
human  character,  a touch  of  vulgarity.  As  for  Albano, 
how  are  we  to  discriminate  between  his  angels  and  his 
nymphs,  Apollos,  and  Cupids  ? But  for  the  occasion 
and  the  appellation,  it  would  be  quite  impossible  to 
distinguish  the  Loves  that  sport  round  Venus  and 
Adonis  from  the  Cherubim,  so  called,  that  hover 
above  a Nativity  or  a Riposo  ; and  the  little  angels,  in 
his  Crucifixion  cry  so  like  naughty  little  boys,  that 
one  longs  to  put  them  in  a corner.  This  merely 
heathen  grace  and  merely  human  sentiment  is*  the 
general  tendency  of  the  whole  school ; and  no  beauty 
of  form  or  color  can,  to  the  feeling  and  religious  mind, 
redeem  such  gross  violations  of  propriety.  As  for 
Poussin,  of  whom  I think  with  due  reverence,  his 
angels  are  often  exquisitely  beautiful  and  refined  : they 
have  a chastity  and  a moral  grace  which  pleases  at 
first  view ; but  here  again  the  Scriptural  type  is  neg- 
lected and  heathenized  in  obedience  to  the  fashion  of 
the  time.  If  we  compare  the  Cupids  in  his  Einaldo 
and  Armida  with  the  angels  which  minister  to  the 


88  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


Virgin  and  Child,  or  the  Cherubim  weeping  in  a 
Deposition  with  the  Amorini  who  are  lamenting  over 
Adonis,  in  what  respect  do  they  differ?  They  are 
evidently  painted  from  the  same  models,  — the  beautiful 
children  of  Titian  and  Flamingo . 

Eubens  gives  us  strong,  well-built  youths,  with  re- 
dundant yellow  hair ; and  chubby,  naked  babies,  as 
like  flesh  and  blood,  and  as  natural,  as  the  life : and 
those  of  Vandyck  are  more  elegant,  without  being  more 
angelic.  Murillo^s  child-angels  are  divine,  through 
absolute  beauty ; the  expression  of  innocence  and  beati- 
tude was  never  more  perfectly  given ; but  in  grandeur 
and  power  they  are  inferior  to  Correggio,  and,  in  all 
that  should  characterize  a diviner  nature,  immeasurably 
below  Raphael. 

Strange  to  say,  the  most  poetical  painter  of  angels 
in  the  seventeenth  century  is  that  inspired  Dutchman, 
Rembrandt ; not  that  his  angels  are  Scriptural,  still 
less  classical ; and  beautiful  they  are  not,  certainly,  — 
often  the  reverse ; but  if  they  have  not  the  Miltonic 
dignity  and  grace,  they  are  at  least  as  unearthly  and 
as  poetical  as  any  of  the  angelic  phantasms  in  Dante, 

— unhuman,  unembodied  creatures,  compounded  of 
light  and  darkness,  the  somewhat  between  a thought 
and  a thing, haunting  the  memory  like  apparitions. 
For  instance,  look  at  his  Jacob's  Dream,  at  Dulwich ; 
or  his  etching  of  the  Angels  appearing  to  the  Shepherds, 

— breaking  through  the  night,  scattering  the  gloom, 
making  our  eyes  ache  with  excess  of  glory,  — the 
Gloria  in  excelsis  ringing  through  the  fancy  while  we 
gaze  ! 

I have  before  observed  that  angels  are  supposed  to 
be  masculine,  with  the  feminine  attributes  of  beauty 
and  purity ; but  in  the  seventeenth  century  the  Floren- 
tine painter,  Giovanni  di  S.  Giovanni,  scandalized  his 
contemporaries  by  introducing  into  a glory  round  the 
Virgin  female  angels  (angelesse).  Rubens  has  more 
than  once  committed  the  same  fault  against  ecclesi- 


ANGELS. 


89 

astical  canons  and  decorum ; for  instance,  in  his  Ma- 
donna “ aux  Anges^’  in  the  Louvre.  Such  aberrations 
of  fancy  are  mere  caprices  of  the  painter,  improprieties 
inadmissible  in  high  art. 

Of  the  sprawling,  fluttering,  half-naked  angels  of  the 
Pietro  da  Cortona  and  Bernini  school,  and  the  feeble 
mannerists  of  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries, 
what  shall  be  said  ? that  they  are  worthy  to  illustrate 
Moore's  Loves  of  the  Angels  non  ragioniam  di  lor  ” ; 
no,  nor  even  look  at  them  ! I have  seen  angels  of  the 
later  Italian  and  Spanish  painters  more  like  opera- 
dancers,  with  artificial  wings  and  gauze  draperies, 
dressed  to  figure  in  a ballet,  than  anything  else  I could 
compare  them  to. 

The  most  original,  and,  in  truth,  the  only  new  and 
original  version  of  the  Scripture  idea  of  angels  which 
I have  met  with,  is  that  of  William  Blake,  a poet 
painter,  somewhat  mad  as  we  are  told,  if  indeed  his 
madness  were  not  rather  <<the  telescope  of  truth,"  a sort 
of  poetical  clairvoyance,  bringing  the  unearthly  nearer 
to  him  than  to  others.  His  adoring  angels  float  rather 
than  fly,  and,  with  their  half-liquid  draperies,  seem  about 
to  dissolve  into  light  and  love  : and  his  rejoicing  an- 
gels — behold  them  — sending  up  their  voices  with  the 
morning  stars,  that  singing,  in  their  glory  move  ! " 

As  regards  the  treatment  of  angels  in  the  more  re- 
cent productions  of  art,  the  painters  and  sculptors  have 
generally  adhered  to  received  and  known  types  in  form 
and  in  sentiment.  The  angels  of  the  old  Italians, 
Giotto  and  Frate  Angelico,  have  been  very  well  imi- 
tated by  Steinle  and  others  of  the  German  school : the 
Eaffaelesque  feeling  has  been  in  general  aimed  at  by 
the  French  and  English  painters.  Tenerani  had  the 
old  mosaics  in  his  mind  when  he  conceived  that  mag- 
nificent colossal  Angel  of  the  Resurrection  seated  on  a 
tomb,  and  waiting  for  the  signal  to  sound  his  trumpet, 
which  I saw  in  his  atelier,  prepared  I believe  for  the 
monument  of  the  Duchess  Lanti.* 


* It  is  now  in  the  Lanti  chapel  in  the  church  of  the  Lateran. 


90 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


I pause  here,  for  I have  dwelt  upon  these  celestial 
Hierarchies,  winged  Splendors,  Princedoms,  Virtues, 
Powers,  till  my  fancy  is  becoming  somewhat  mazed 
and  dazzled  by  the  contemplation.  I must  leave  the 
reader  to  go  into  a picture-gallery,  or  look  over  a port- 
folio of  engravings,  and  so  pursue  the  theme,  whither- 
soever it  may  lead  him,  and  it  may  lead  him,  in  Ham- 
let^s  words,  ‘‘to  thoughts  beyond  the  reaches  of  his 
soul ! * 

* Mr.  Ruskin  remarks  very  truly,  that  in  early  Christian  art 
there  is  “ a certain  confidence,  in  the  way  in  which  angels  trust 
to  their  wings,  very  characteristic  of  a period  of  bold  and  simple 
conception.  Modern  science  has  taught  us  that  a wing  cannot  be 
anatomically  joined  to  a shoulder  ; and  in  proportion  as  painters 
approach  more  and  more  to  the  scientific,  as  distinguished  from 
the  contemplative  state  of  mind,  they  put  the  wings  of  their 
angels  on  more  timidly,  and  dwell  with  greater  emphasis  on  the 
human  form,  with  less  upon  the  wings,  until  these  last  become  a 
species  of  decorative  appendage,  a mere  sign  of  an  angel.  But 
in  Giotto’s  time  an  angel  was  a complete  creature,  as  much  be- 
lieved in  as  a bird,  and  the  way  in  which  it  would  or  might  cast 
itself  into  the  air,  and  lean  hither  and  thither  on  its  plumes,  was 
as  naturally  apprehended  as  the  manner  of  flight  of  a chough  or  a 
starling.  Hence  Dante’s  simple  and  most  exquisite  synonyme  for 
angel,  ‘ Bird  of  God  ’ ; and  hence  also  a variety  and  picturesque- 
ness in  the  expression  of  the  movements  of  the  heavenly  hierar- 
chies by  the  earlier  painters,  ill  replaced  by  the  powers  of  fore- 
shortening and  throwing  naked  limbs  into  fantastic  positions, 
which  appear  in  the  cherubic  groups  of  later  times.” 


II.  THE  ARCHANGELS. 

— « — 


“ The  Seven 

Who  in  God’s  presence,  nearest  to  his  throne, 

Stand  ready  at  command.” 

Milton. 

AYING  treated  of  the  celestial  Hierarchy 
in  general,  we  have  now  to  consider  those 
angels  who  in  artistic  representations  have 
1 assumed  an  individual  form  and  character. 
These  belong  to  the  order  of  Archangels,  placed  by 
Dionysius  in  the  third  Hierarchy  : they  take  rank 
between  the  Princedoms  and  the  Angels,  and  partake 
of  the  nature  of  both,  being,  like  the  Princedoms, 
Powers ; and,  like  the  Angels,  Ministers  and  Messen- 
gers. 

Frequent  allusion  is  made  in  Scripture  to  the  Seven 
Angels  who  stand  in  the  presence  of  God.  (Rev.  viii. 
2,  XV.  1,  xvi.  1,  &c. ; Tobit  xxii.  1.5.)  This  was  in 
accordance  with  the  popular  creed  of  the  Jews,  who 
not  only  acknowledged  the  supremacy  of  the  Seven 
Spirits,  but  assigned  to  them  distinct  vocations  and 
distinct  appellations,  each  terminating  with  the  syllable 
Ely  which  signifies  God.  Thus  we  have,  — 

I.  Michael  (i.  e.  who  is  like  unto  God),  captain- 
general  of  the  host  of  heaven,  and  protector  of  the 
Hebrew  nation. 

II.  Gabriel  (i.  e.  God  is  my  strength),  guardian 
of  the  celestial  treasury,  and  preceptor  of  the  patriarch 
Joseph. 


92 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


III.  Baphael  (i.  e.  the  medicine  of  God),  the  con- 
ductor of  Tobit ; thence  the  chief  guardian  angel. 

lY.  Uriel  (i.  e.  the  light  of  God),  who  taught 
Esdras.  He  was  also  regent  of  the  sun. 

V.  Chamuel  (i.  e.  one  who  sees  God  ?),  who  wres- 
tled with  Jacob,  and  who  appeared  to  Christ  at  Geth- 
semane.  (But,  according  to  other  authorities,  this  was 
the  angel  Gabriel.) 

VI.  JoPHiEL  (i.  e.  the  beauty  of  God),  who  was 
the  preceptor  of  the  sons  of  Noah,  and  is  the  protector 
of  all  those  who,  with  an  humble  heart,  seek  after 
truth,  and  the  enemy  of  those  who  pursue  vain  knowl- 
edge. Thus  Jophiel  was  naturally  considered  as  the 
guardian  of  the  tree  of  knowledge,  and  the  same  who 
drove  Adam  and  Eve  from  Paradise. 

VII.  Zadkiel  (i.  e.  the  righteousness  of  God),  who 
stayed  the  hand  of  Abraham  when  about  to  sacrifice 
his  son.  (But,  according  to  other  authorities,  this  was 
the  archangel  Michael.) 

The  Christian  Church  does  not  acknowledge  these 
Seven  Angels  by  name ; neither  in  the  East,  where 
the  worship  of  angels  took  deep  root,  nor  yet  in  the 
“West,  where  it  has  been  tacitly  accepted.  Nor  have  I 
met  with  them  as  a series,  hy  name^  in  any  ecclesiastical 
work  of  art,  though  I have  seen  a set  of  old  anony- 
mous prints  in  which  they  appear  with  distinct  names 
and  attributes  : Michael  bears  the  sword  and  scales ; 
Gabriel,  the  lily  ; Baphael,  the  pilgrim’s  staff  and 
gourd  full  of  water,  as  a traveller.  Uriel  has  a roll 
and  a book  : he  is  the  interpreter  of  judgments  and 
prophecies,  and  for  this  purpose  was  sent  to  Esdras : 

The  angel  that  was  sent  unto  me,  whose  name  was 
Uriel,  gave  me  an  answer.”  (Esdras  ii.  4.)  And  in 
Milton,  — 

“ Uriel,  for  thou  of  those  Seven  Spirits  that  stand 
In  sight  of  God’s  high  throne,  gloriously  bright, 

The  first  art  wont  his  great  authentic  will 
Interpreter  through  highest  heaven  to  bring.” 

According  to  an  early  Christian  tradition,  it  was  this 


ARCHANGELS. 


93 


angel,  and  not  Christ  in  person,  who  accompanied  the 
two  disciples  to  Emmaus.  Chamuel  is  represented 
with  a cup  and  a staff ; Jophiel  with  a flaming  sword. 
Zadkiel  bears  the  sacrificial  knife  which  he  took  from 
the  hand  of  Abraham. 

But  the  Seven  Angels,  without  being  distinguished 
by  name,  are  occasionally  introduced  into  works  of  art. 
For  example,  over . the  arch  of  the  choir  in  San  Mi- 
chele, at  Ravenna  (a.  d.  545),  on  each  side  of  the 
throned  Saviour  are  the  Seven  Angels  blowing  trum- 
pets like  cow^s  horns  : And  I saw  the  Seven  An- 
gels which  stand  before  God,  and  to  them  were  given 
seven  trumpets.^'  (Rev.  viii.  2,  6.)  In  representations 
of  the  Crucifixion  and  in  the  Pieta,  the  Seven  Angels 
are  often  seen  in  attendance,  bearing  the  instruments 
of  the  Passion.  Michael  bears  the  cross,  for  he  is 
the  Bannerer  of  heaven  ” ; but  I do  not  feel  certain 
of  the  particular  avocations  of  the  others. 

In  the  Last  Judgment  of  Orcagna,  in  the  Campo 
Santo  at  Pisa,  the  Seven  Angels  are  active  and  im- 
portant personages.  The  angel  who  stands  in  the 
centre  of  the  picture,  below  the  throne  of  Christ,  ex- 
tends a scroll  in  each  hand  ; on  that  in  the  right  hand 
is  inscribed  Come,  ye  blessed  of  my  Father,’^  and  on 
that  in  the  left  hand,  Depart  from  me,  ye  accursed  ” : 
him  I suppose  to  be  Michael,  the  angel  of  judgment. 
At  his  feet  crouches  an  angel  who  seems  to  shrink 
from  the  tremendous  spectacle,  and  hides  his  face : him 
I suppose  to  be  Raphael,  the  guardian  angel  of  hu- 
manity. The  attitude  has  always  been  admired,  — 
cowering  with  horror,  yet  sublime.  Beneath  are  other 
five  angels,  who  are  engaged  in  separating  the  just 
from  the  wicked,  encouraging  and  sustaining  the  for- 
mer, and  driving  the  latter  towards  the  demons  -who 
are  ready  to  snatch  them  into  flames.  These  Seven 
Angels  have  the  garb  of  princes  and  warriors,  with 
breastplates  of  gold,  jewelled  sword-belts  and  tiaras, 
rich  mantles  ; while  the  other  angels  who  figure  in  the 
same  scene  are  plumed  and  bird-like,  and  hover  above 
bearing  the  instruments  of  the  Passion. 


94 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


Again  we  may  see  the  Seven  Angels  in  quite  an- 
other character,  attending  on  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  in 
a picture  by  Taddeo  Gaddi.*  Here,  instead  of  the 
instruments  of  the  Passion,  they  bear  the  allegorical 
attributes  of  those  virtues  for  which  that  famous  saint 
and  doctor  is  to  be  reverenced : one  bears  an  olive- 
branch,  i.  e.  Peace ; the  second,  a book,  i.  e.  Knowl- 
edge ; the  third,  a crown  and  sceptre,  i.  e.  Power ; the 
fourth,  a church,  i.  e.  Religion ; tlie  fifth,  a cross  and 
shield,  i.  e.  Faith ; the  sixth,  flames  of  fire  in  each 
hand,  i.  e.  Piety  and  Charity ; the  seventh,  a lily,  i.  e. 
Purity. 

In  general  it  may  be  presumed  when  seven  angels 
figure  together,  or  are  distinguished  from  among  a host 
of  angels  by  dress,  stature,  or  other  attributes,  that  these 
represent  the  Seven  Holy  Angels  who  stand  in  the 
presence  of  God.”  Four  only  of  these  Seven  Angels 
are  individualized  by  name,  Michael,  Gabriel,  Raphael, 
and  Uriel.  According  to  the  Jewish  tradition,  these 
four  sustain  the  throne  of  the  Almighty  : they  have  the 
Greek  epithet  arch,  or  chief,  assigned  to  them,  from  the 
two  texts  of  Scripture  in  which  that  title  is  used 
(1  Thess.  iv.  16  ; Judeix.) ; but  only  the  three  first, 
who  in  Scripture  have  a distinct  personality,  are  rever- 
enced in  the  Catholic  Church  as  saints ; and  their 
gracious  beauty,  and  their  divine  prowess,  and  their 
high  behests  to  mortal  man,  have  furnished  some  of 
the  most  important  and  most  poetical  subjects  which 
appear  in  Christian  Art. 

The  earliest  instance  I have  met  of  the  Archangels  in- 
troduced by  name  into  a work  of  art  is  in  the  old  church 
of  San  Michele  at  Ravenna  (a.  d.  545).  The  mosaie 
in  the  apse  exhibits  Christ  in  the  centre,  bearing  in  one 
hand  the  cross  as  a trophy  or  sceptre,  and  in  the  other 
an  open  book  on  which  are  the  words  Qui  videt  me 
videt  et  Patrem  meum.”  On  each  side  stand  Michael 
and  Gabriel,  with  vast  wings  and  long  sceptres  ; their 
names  are  inscribed  above,  but  without  the  Sanctus  and 

* A.  D.  1352,  Florence,  S.  Maria  Novella. 


ARCHANGELS. 


95 


without  the  Glory.  It  appears,  therefore,  that  at  this 
time,  the  middle  of  the  sixth  century,  the  title  of  Saint, 
though  in  use,  had  not  been  given  to  the  Archangels. 

When,  in  the  ancient  churches,  the  figure  of  Christ 
or  of  the  Lamb  appears  in  a circle  or  glory  in  the  cen- 
tre of  the  roof ; and  around,  or  at  the  four  corners, 
four  angels  who  sustain  the  circle  with  outspread  arms, 
or  stand  as  w^atchers,  with  sceptres  or  lances  in  their 
hands,  these  I presume  to  be  the  four  Archangels  who 
sustain  the  throne  of  God.^'  Examples  may  be  seen 
in  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna ; in  the  chapel  of  San  Zeno, 
in  Santa  Prassede  at  Rome ; and  on  the  roof  of  the 
choir  of  San  Francesco  d' Assisi. 

So  the  four  Archangels,  stately  colossal  figures,  winged 
and  armed  and  sceptred,  stand  over  the  arch  of  the 
choir  in  the  Cathedral  of  Monreale,  at  Palermo.* * * § 

So  the  four  angels  stand  at  the  four  corners  of  the 
earth  and  hold  the  winds,  heads  with  puffed  cheeks  and 
dishevelled  hair.f  (Rev.  vii.  1.) 

But  I have  never  seen  Uriel  represented  by  name, 
or  alone,  in  any  sacred  edifice.  In  the  picture  of  Uriel 
painted  by  Allston,!:  he  is  the  Regent  of  the  Sun,” 
as  described  by  Milton;  not  a sacred  or  Scriptural 
personage.  On  a shrine  of  carved  ivory  § I have  seen 
the  four  Archangels  as  keeping  guard,  two  at  each 
end ; the  three  first  are  named  as  usual,  St.  Michael, 
St.  Gabriel,  St.  Raphael ; the  fourth  is  styled  St.  Cher- 
vbin ; and  I have  seen  the  same  name  inscribed  over 
the  head  of  the  angel  who  expels  Adam  and  Eve  from 
Paradise.  There  is  no  authority  for  such  an  appel- 
lation applied  individually;  but  I find,  in  a famous 
legend  of  the  middle  ages,  La  Penitence  d'Adam,” 
that  the  angel  who  guards  the  gates  of  Paradise  is  thus 
designated : “ Lorsque  TAnge  Cherubin  vit  arriver 

* Greek  mosaic,  A.  D.  1174. 

t MS.  of  the  Book  of  Revelation,  fourteenth  century.  Trinity 
College,  Dublin. 

X Coll,  of  the  Duke  of  Sutherland. 

§ Hotel  de  Cluny,  399. 


96  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

Seth  aux  portes  de  Paradis,”  &c.  The  four  Arch- 
angels, however,  seldom  occur  together,  except  in 
architectural  decoration.  On  the  other  hand,  devo- 
tional pictures  of  the  three  Archangels  named  in  the 
canonical  Scriptures  are  of  frequent  occurrence.  They 
are  often  grouped  together  as  patron  saints  or  protect- 
ing spirits  ; or  they  stand  round  the  throne  of  Christ, 
or  below  the  glorified  Virgin  and  Child,  in  an  attitude 
of  adoration.  According  to  the  Greek  formula,  the 
three  in  combination  represent  the  triple  power,  mili- 
tary, civil,  and  religious,  of  the  celestial  hierarchy : 
St.  Michael  being  habited  as  a warrior,  Gabriel  as  a 
prince,  and  Raphael  as  a priest.  In  a Greek  picture 
the  three  Archangels  sustain  in  a kind  of  throne  the 
figure  of  the  youthful  Christ,  here  winged,  as  being 
Himself  the  supreme  A^ngel  (ayyeXoff),  and  with  both 
hands  blessing  the  universe.  The  Archangel  Raphael 
has  here  the  place  of  dignity  as  representing  the  Priest- 
hood ; but  in  Western  art  Michael  takes  precedence  of 
the  two  others,  and  is  usually  placed  in  the  centre 
as  Prince  or  Chief : with  him,  then,  as  considered  in- 
dividually, we  begin. 


St.  Michael. 

{Lat.  Sanctus  Michael  Angelas.  Ital.  San  Michele,  Sammichele. 

Fr.  Monseigneur  Saint  Michel.  Sept.  29.) 

“ Michael,  the  Great  Prince  that  standeth  for  the  children  of  thy 
people.” — Dan.  xii.  1. 

It  is  difficult  to  clothe  in  adequate  language  the 
divine  attributes  with  which  painting  and  poetry  have 
invested  this  illustrious  archangel.  Jews  and  Chris- 
tians are  agreed  in  giving  him  the  pre-eminence  over 
all  created  spirits.  All  the  might,  the  majesty,  the 
radiance  of  Thrones,  Dominations,  Princedoms,  Vir- 
tues, Powers,  are  centred  in  him.  In  him  God  put 
forth  His  strength  when  he  exalted  him  chief  over 


ARCHANGELS. 


97 


the  celestial  host,  when  angels  warred  with  angels  in 
heaven ; and  in  him  God  showed  forth  his  glory 
when  he  made  him  conqueror  over  the  power  of  sin, 
and  over  the  great  dragon  that  deceived  the  world/' 

To  the  origin  of  the  worship  paid  to  this  great  arch- 
angel I dare  not  do  more  than  allude,  lest  I stray  wide 
from  my  subject,  and  lose  myself,  and  my  readers  too, 
in  labyrinths  of  Orientalism.  But,  in  considering  the 
artistic  representations,  it  is  interesting  to  call  to  mind 
that  the  glorification  of  St.  Michael  may  be  traced  back 
to  that  primitive  Eastern  dogma,  the  perpetual  antago- 
nism between  the  Spirit  of  Good  and  the  Spirit  of  Evil, 
mixed  up  with  the  Chaldaic  belief  in  angels,  and  their 
influence  over  the  destinies  of  man.  It  was  subsequent 
to  the  Captivity  that  the  active  Spirit  of  Good,  under 
the  name  of  Michael,  came  to  be  regarded  as  the  espe- 
cial protector  of  the  Hebrew  nation  : the  veneration 
paid  to  him  by  the  Jews  was  adopted,  or  rather  re- 
tained, by  the  Oriental  Christians,  and,  though  sup- 
pressed for  a time,  was  revived  and  spread  over  the 
West,  where  we  find  it  popular,  and  almost  universal, 
from  the  eighth  century. 

The  legends  which  have  grown  out  of  a few  mystical 
texts  of  Scripture,  amplified  by  the  fanciful  disquisitions 
of  the  theological  writers,  place  St.  Michael  before  us 
in  three  great  characters  : 1.  As  captain  of  the  heav- 
enly host,  and  conqueror  of  the  powers  of  hell.  2.  As 
lord  of  souls,  conductor  and  guardian  of  the  spirits  of 
the  dead.  3.  As  patron  saint  and  prince  of  the  Church 
Militant. 

When  Lucifer,  possessed  by  the  spirit  of  pride  and 
ingratitude,  refused  to  fall  down  and  worship  the  Son 
of  Man,  Michael  was  deputed  to  punish  his  insolence, 
and  to  cast  him  out  from  heaven.  Then  Michael 
chained  the  revolted  angels  in  middle  air,  where  they 
are  to  remain  till  the  day  of  judgment,  being  in  the 
mean  time  perpetually  tortured  by  hate,  envy,  and  de- 
7 


98  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

spair  : for  they  behold  man,  whom  they  had  disdained, 
exalted  as  their  superior ; above  them  they  see  the 
heaven  they  have  forfeited ; and  beneath  them  the  re- 
deemed souls  continually  rising  from  earth,  and  ascend- 
ing to  the  presence  of  God,  whence  they  are  shut  out 
forever. 

“ Now,’'  says  the  old  Legend,^  if  it  be  asked 
wherefore  the  books  of  Moses,  in  revealing  the  dis- 
obedience and  the  fall  of  man,  are  silent  as  to  the 
revolt  and  fall  of  the  angels,  the  reason  is  plain ; and, 
in  this  God  acted  according  to  his  wisdom.  For,  let 
us  suppose  that  a certain  powerful  lord  hath  two  vas- 
sals, both  guilty  of  the  crime  of  treason,  and  one  of 
these  is  a nobleman  of  pure  and  lofty  lineage,  and  the 
other  a base-born  churl : — what  doth  this  lord  ? He 
hangs  up  the  churl  in  the  market-place  as  a warning 
and  example  to  others  ; — but,  for  the  nobleman,  fear- 
ing the  scandal  that  may  arise  among  the  people,  and 
perhaps  also  some  insult  to  the  officers  of  the  law,  the 
judge  causes  him  to  be  tried  secretly,  and  shuts  him  up 
in  a dungeon ; and  when  judgment  is  pronounced 
against  him,  he  sends  to  his  prison,  and  puts  him 
privily  to  death ; and  when  one  asketh  after  him,  the 
answer  is  only,  ‘ He  is  dead  ’ : — and  nothing  more. 
Thus  did  God  in  respect  to  the  rebel  angels  of  old ; 
and  their  fate  was  not  revealed  until  the  redemption  of 
man  was  accomplished.” 

This  passage  from  the  old  Italian  legend  is  so 
curiously  characteristic  of  the  feudal  spirit  of  Chris- 
tianity in  the  middle  ages,  that  I have  ventured  to  in- 
sert it  verbatim.  If  religion  did,  in  some  degree, 
modify  the  institutions  of  chivalry,  in  a much  greater 
degree  did  the  ruling  prejudices  of  a barbarian  age 
modify  the  popular  ideas  of  religion.  Here,  notwith- 
standing the  primary  doctrine  of  Christ,  — the  equality 
of  all  men  before  God, — we  have  the  distinction  between 
noble  and  churl  carried  into  the  very  councils  of 
heaven. 


V.  II  perfetto  Legendario.  1659. 


ARCHANGELS. 


99 


But,  to  return  to  St.  Michael : on  whom,  as  the 
leader  of  his  triumphant  hosts,  God  bestowed  many 
and  great  privileges.  To  him  it  was  given 
“ To  bid  sound  th’  archangel  trumpet,” 
and  exalt  the  banner  of  the  Cross  in  the  day  of  judg- 
ment ; and  to  him  likewise  was  assigned  the  reception 
of  the  immortal  spirits  when  released  by  death.  It  was 
his  task  to  weigh  them  in  a balance  (Dan.  v.  27  ; Ps. 
Ixii.  9)  : those  whose  good  works  exceeded  their  de- 
merits, he  presented  before  the  throne  of  God;  but 
those  who  were  found  wanting  he  gave  up  to  be  tor- 
tured in  purgatory,  until  their  souls,  from  being  as 
crimson,  should  become  as  white  as  snow.”  Therefore, 
in  the  hour  of  death,  he  is  to  be  invoked  by  the  faithful, 
saying,  <<  0 Michael^  militce  coelestis  signifer,  in  adjutorium 
nostrum  veni,  princeps  et  propugnator  / ” 

Lastly,  when  it  pleased  the  Almighty  to  select  from 
among  the  nations  of  the  earth  one  people  to  become 
peculiarly  his  own,  He  appointed  St.  Michael  to  be 
president  and  leader  over  that  chosen  people.^  At 
that  time  shall  Michael  stand  up,  the  great  prince 
which  standeth  for  the  children  of  thy  people  ” (Dan. 
X.  13,  xii.  1)  : and  when  the  power  of  the  Synagogue 
was  supposed  to  cease,  and  to  be  replaced  by  the  power 
of  the  Church,  so  that  the  Christians  became  the  people 
of  God,  then  Michael,  who  had  been  the  great  prince 
of  the  Hebrew  people,  became  the  prince  and  leader  of 
the  Church  militant  in  Christendom,  and  the  guardian 
of  redeemed  souls,  against  his  old  adversary  the  Prince 
of  Hell.  (Rev.  xii.  6,  7.) 

* The  Gnostics  taught  that  the  universe  was  created  by  the 
Seven  Great  Angels,  who  ranked  next  to  the  Eons^  or  direct 
emanations  from^  God  ; “ And  when  a distribution  was  afterwards 
made  of  things,  the  chief  of  the  creating  angels  had  the  People  of 
the  Jews  particularly  to  his  share  5 a doctrine  which  in  the  main 
was  received  by  many  ancients.”  (See  Lardner’s  History  of  the 
Early  Heresies.)  I have  alluded  to  the  angel  pictured  as  the  agent 
in  creation,  but  the  Seven  creating  Angels  I have  not  met  with  in 
art.  This  was  one  of  the  Gnostic  fancies  condemned  by  the  early 
Church. 


100  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


The  worship  paid  to  St.  Michael,  and  which  origi- 
nated in  the  far  East,  is  supposed  to  have  been  adopted 
by  the  Oriental  Christians  in  consequence  of  a famous 
apparition  of  the  Archangel  at  Colossae,  in  Phrygia, 
which  caused  him  to  be  held  in  especial  honor  by  the 
people  of  that  city,  and  perhaps  occasioned  the  . par- 
ticular warning  of  St.  Paul  addressed  to  the  Colossians. 
But  although  the  worship  of  angels  was  considered 
among  the  heresies  of  the  early  Church,  we  find  Con- 
stantine no  sooner  master  of  the  empire,  and  a bap- 
tized Christian,  than  he  dedicates  a church  to  the 
Archangel  Michael  (by  his  Greek  name  Michaelion), 
and  this  church,  one  of  the  most  magnificent  in  Con- 
stantinople, became  renowned  for  its  miracles,  and  the 
parent  and  model  of  hundreds  more  throughout  the 
East. 

In  the  West,  the  honors  paid  to  St.  Michael  are  of 
later  date : that  a church  dedicated  to  him  must  have 
existed  in  Rome  long  before  the  year  500  seems  clear, 
because  at  that  time  it  is  mentioned  as  having  fallen 
into  ruin.  But  the  West  had  its  angelic  apparitions 
as  well  as  the  East,  and  St.  Michael  owes  his  wide- 
spread popularity  in  the  middle  ages  to  three  famous 
visions  which  are  thus  recorded. 

In  the  fifth  century,  in  the  city  of  Siponte,  in  Apu- 
lia (now  Manfredonia),  dwelt  a man  named  Galgano 
or  Garganus,  very  rich  in  cattle,  sheep,  and  beasts ; 
and  as  they  pastured  on  the  sides  of  the  mountain,  it 
happened  that  a bull  strayed  and  came  not  home : then 
the  rich  man  took  a multitude  of  servants  and  sought 
the  bull,  and  found  him  at  the  entrance  of  a cave  on 
the  very  summit  of  the  mountain,  and,  being  wrath 
with  the  bull,  the  master  ordered  him  to  be  slain ; but 
when  the  arrow  was  sent  from  the  bow  dt  returned  to 
the  bosom  of  him  who  sent  it,  and  he  fell  dead  on 
the  ground : then  the  master  and  his  servants  were 
troubled,  and  they  sent  to  inquire  of  the  bishop  what 
should  be  done.  The  bishop,  having  fasted  and  prayed 
three  days,  beheld  in  a vision  the  glorious  Archangel 


ARCHANGELS. 


lOI 


Michael,  who  descended  on  the  mountain,  and  told 
him  that  the  servant  had  been  slain  because  he  had 
violated  a spot  peculiarly  sacred  to  him,  and  he  com- 
manded that  a church  should  be  erected  and  sanctified 
there  to  his  honor.  And  when  they  entered  the  cavern 
they  found  there  three  altars  already  erected,  one  of 
them  covered  with  a rich  embroidered  altar-cloth  of 
crimson  and  gold,  and  a stream  of  limpid  water 
springing  from  the  rock,  which  healed  all  diseases. 
So  the  church  was  built,  and  the  fame  of  the  visioit 
of  Monte  Galgano,  though  for  some  time  confined  to 
the  south  of  Italy,  spread  throughout  Europe,  and 
many  pilgrimages  were  made  to  the  spot  on  which  the 
angelic  footsteps  had  alighted. 

The  second  vision  is  much  more  imposing.  When 
Eome  was  nearly  depopulated  by  a pestilence  in  the 
sixth  century,  St.  Gregory,  afterwards  Pope,  advised 
that  a procession  should  be  made  through  the  streets 
of  the  city,  singing  the  service  since  called  the  Great 
Litanies.  He  placed  himself  at  the  head  of  the  faith- 
ful, and  during  three  days  they  perambulated  the  city ; 
and  on  the  third  day,  when  they  had  arrived  opposite 
to  the  mole  of  Hadrian,  Gregory  beheld  the  Archangel 
Michael  alight  on  the  summit  of  that  monument,  and 
sheathe  his  sword  bedropped  with  blood.  Then  Greg- 
ory knew  that  the  plague  was  stayed,  and  a church 
was  there  dedicated  to  the  honor  of  the  Archangel : 
and  the  Tomb  of  Hadrian  has  since  been  called  the 
Castle  of  Sant’  Angelo  to  this  day. 

This,  of  all  the  recorded  apparitions  of  St.  Michael, 
is  the  only  one  which  can  be  called  poetical : it  is 
evidently  borrowed  from  the  vision  of  the  destroying 
angel  in  Scripture.  As  early  as  the  ninth  century,  a 
church  or  chapel  dedicated  to  St.  Michael  was  erected 
on  the  summit  of  the  huge  monument,  which  at  that 
time  must  have  preserved  much  of  its  antique  magnifi- 
cence. The  church  was  entitled  Ecclesia  Sancti  Angeli 
usque  ad  Codos.  The  bronze  statue,  which  in  memory 
of  this  miracle  now  surmounts  the  Castle  of  St.  An- 


102  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


gelo,  was  placed  there  in  recent  times  by  Benedict 
XIV.,  and  is  the  work  of  a Flemish  sculptor,  Ver- 
schaffelt.  I suppose  no  one  ever  looked  at  this  statue 
critically,  — at  least,  for  myself,  I never  could  : nor 
can  I remember  now,  whether,  as  a work  of  art,  it  is 
above  or  below  criticism  ; perhaps  both.  With  its  vast 
wings,  poised  in  air,  as  seen  against  the  deep  blue  skies 
of  Eome,  or  lighted  up  by  the  golden  sunset,  to  me  it 
was  ever  like  what  it  was  intended  to  represent,  — like 
a vision. 

A third  apparition  was  that  accorded  to  Aubert, 
Bishop  of  Avranches  (a.  d.  706).  This  holy  man 
seems  to  have  been  desirous  to  attract  to  his  own 
diocese  a portion  of  that  sanctity  (and  perhaps  other 
advantages)  which  Monte  Galgano  derived  from  the 
worship  of  St.  Michael.  In  the  Gulf  of  Avranches, 
in  Normandy,  stands  a lofty  isolated  rock,  inaccessible 
from  the  land  at  high  water,  and  for  ages  past  cele- 
brated as  one  of  the  strongest  fortresses  and  state 
prisons  in  France.  In  the  reign  of  Childebert  II., 
St.  Aubert,  Bishop  of  Avranches,  had  a vision,  in 
which  the  Archangel  Michael  commanded  him  to  re- 
pair to  this  rock,  then  the  terror  of  mariners,  and  erect 
a church  to  his  honor  on  the  highest  point,  where  a 
bull  would  be  found  concealed,  and  it  was  to  cover  as 
much  space  as  the  bull  had  trampled  with  his  hoofs : 
he  also  discovered  to  the  bishop  a wellspring  of  pure 
water,  which  had  before  been  unknown.  As  the  bishop 
treated  this  command  as  a dream,  the  Archangel  ap- 
peared to  him  a second  and  a third  time ; and  at 
length,  to  impress  it  on  his  waking  memory,  he  touched 
his  head  with  his  thumb,  and  made  a mark  or  hole  in 
his  skull,  which  he  carried  to  the  grave.  This  time 
the  bishop  obeyed,  and  a small  church  was  built  on 
the  spot  indicated ; afterwards  replaced  by  the  mag- 
nificent Abbey  Church,  which  was  begun  by  Richard, 
Duke  of  Normandy,  in  966,  and  finished  by  William 
the  Conqueror.  The  poverty  of  invention  shown  in 
this  legend,  which  is  little  more  than  a repetition  of 


ARCHANGELS, 


103 


that  of  Monte  Galgano,  is  very  disappointing  to  the 
fancy,  considering  tlie  celebrity  of  Mont- Sain t-Michel 
as  a place  of  pilgrimage,  and  as  one  of  the  most  pic- 
turesque objects  in  European  scenery,  with  its  massive 
towers,  which  have  braved  the  tempests  of  a thousand 
years,  rising  from  the  summit  of  the  peak,  and  the  sea 
weltering  round  its  base.  It  failed  not,  however,  in 
the  effect  anticipated.  The  worship  of  St.  Michael 
became  popular  in  France  from  the  ninth  century ; the 
Archangel  was  selected  as  patron  saint  of  France,  and 
of  the  military  order  instituted  in  his  honor  by  Louis 
XI.  in  1469.  The  worship  paid  to  St.  Michael  as 
patron  saint  of  Normandy  naturally  extended  itself  to 
England  after  the  Norman  conquest,  and  churches 
dedicated  to  this  archangel  abound  in  all  the  towns 
and  cities  along  the  southern  and  eastern  shores  of 
our  island ; we  also  have  a Mount  St.  Michael  on 
the  coast  of  Cornwall,  in  situation  and  in  name  re- 
sembling that  on  the  coast  of  France.  At  this  day 
there  are  few  cities  in  Christendom  which  do  not 
contain  a church  or  churches  dedicated  to  St.  Michael, 
some  of  them  of  great  antiquity. 

I must  not  omit  that  St.  Michael  is  considered  as 
the  angel  of  good  counsel  : that  “ Le  vrai  office  de 
Monseigneur  Saint  Micliel  est  de  faire  grandes  revela- 
tions aux  hommes  en  bas,  en  leur  donnant  moult  saints 
conseils,”  and  in  particular,  sur  le  bon  nourissement 
que  le  pere  et  la  mere  donnent  a leurs  enfans.^’  * It 
is  to  be  regretted  that  Monseigneur  Saint  Michel 
should  be  found  rather  remiss  in  this  part  of  his  an- 
gelic functions. 

We  shall  now  see  how  far  these  various  traditions 
and  popular  notions  concerning  St.  Michael  have  been 
carried  out  in  Art. 

In  all  representations  of  St.  Michael,  the  leading 
idea,  well  or  ill  expressed,  is  the  same.  He  is  young 
and  beautiful,  but  severe  in  youthful  beauty,”  as  one 

* Le  Livre  des  Angeles  de  Dieu,  MS.  Paris  Bibl.  Nat. 


104  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


who  carries  on  a perpetual  contest  with  the  powers  of 
evil.  In  the  earlier  works  of  art  he  is  robed  in  white, 
with  ample  many-colored  wings,  and  bears  merely  the 
sceptre  or  the  lance  surmounted  by  a cross,  as  one  who 
conquered  by  spiritual  might  alone.  But  in  the  later 
representations,  those  colored  by  the  spirit  of  chivalry, 
he  is  the  angelic  Paladin,  armed  in  a dazzling  coat  of 
mail,  with  sword  and  spear  and  shield.  He  has  a 
lofty  open  brow,  long  fair  hair  floating  on  his  shoul- 
ders, sometimes  bound  by  a jewelled  tiara  ; sometimes, 
but  not  often,  shaded  by  a helmet.  From  his  shoul- 
ders spring  two  resplendent  wings.  Thus  we  see  him 
standing  by  the  throne  of  the  Madonna,  or  worshipping 
at  the  feet  of  the  Divine  Infant ; an  exquisite  allegory 
of  spiritual  and  intellectual  power  protecting  purity 
and  adoring  innocence. 

There  is  a most  beautiful  little  figure  by  Angelico, 
of  St.  Michael  standing  in  his  character  of  archangel 
and  patron  of  the  Church  Militant,  ‘<as  the  winged 
saint  ” ; no  demon,  no  attribute  except  the  lance  and 
shield.  The  attitude  is  tranquilly  elegant,  and  the 
armor  is  of  a dark  crimson  and  gold,  the  wings  are 
of  rainbow  tints,  vivid  and  delicate ; a flame  of  lam- 
bent fire  rests  on  the  brow. 

But  the  single  devotional  figures  of  St.  Michael 
usually  represent  him  as  combining  the  two  great 
characters  of  captain  of  the  heavenly  host  and  con- 
queror of  the  powers  of  hell.  He  stands  armed,  set- 
ting his  foot  on  Lucifer,  either  in  the  half-human  or 
the  dragon  form,  and  is  about  to  transfix  him  with  his 
lance,  or  to  chain  him  down  in  the  infernal  abyss. 
Such,  however  varied  in  the  attitude,  expression,  and 
accessories,  is  the  most  frequent  and  popular  represen- 
tation of  St.  Miehael,  when  placed  before  us,  as  the 
universally  received  emblem  of  the  final  victory  of 
good  over  evil. 

In  those  churches  of  Christendom  which  have  not 
been  defaced  by  a blind  destructive  zeal,  this  image 
meets  us  at  every  turn  : it  salutes  us  in  tlie  porch  as 


ARCHANGELS. 


105 

we  enter,  or  it  shines  upon  us  in  gorgeous  colors  from 
the  window,  or  it  is  wreathed  into  the  capitals  of  col- 
umns, or  it  stands  in  its  holy  heroic  beauty  over  the 
altar.  It  is  so  common  and  so  in  harmony  with  our 
inmost  being,  that  we  rather  feel  its  presence  than  ob- 
serve it.  It  is  the  visible,  palpable  reflection  of  that 
great  truth  stamped  into  our  very  souls,  and  shadowed 
forth  in  every  form  of  ancient  belief,  — the  flnal  tri- 
umph of  the  spiritual  over  the  animal  and  earthly  part 
of  our  nature.  This  is  the  secret  of  its  perpetual  repe- 
tition, and  this  the  secret  of  the  untired  complacency 
with  which  we  regard  it ; for  even  in  the  most  ineffi- 
cient attempts  at  expression,  we  have  always  the  lead- 
ing motif  distinct  and  true,  the  winged  virtue  is  always 
victorious  above,  and  the  bestial  vice  is  always  pros- 
trate below  : and  if  to  this  primal  moral  significance  be 
added  all  the  charm  of  poetry,  grace,  animated  move- 
ment, which  human  genius  has  lavished  on  this  ever- 
blessed,  ever-welcome  symbol,  then,  as  we  look  up  at 
it,  we  are  ‘^not  only  touched,  but  wakened  and  in- 
spired,'^ and  the  whole  delighted  imagination  glows 
with  faith  and  hope,  and  grateful,  triumphant  sympa- 
thy, — so  at  least  I have  felt,  and  I must  believe  that 
others  have  felt  it  too. 

In  the  earliest  representations  of  this  subject,  we  see 
the  simplest  form  of  the  allegory,  literally  rendering 
the  words  of  Scripture,  The  dragon  shalt  thou  tram- 
ple under  foot."  (Ps.  xci.  13.)  Here  there  is  no  risk 
of  a divided  interest  or  a misdirected  sympathy.  The 
demon,  grovelling  under  the  feet  of  the  victorious 
spirit,  is  not  the  star-bright  apostate  who  drew  after 
him  the  third  part  of  heaven ; it  is  the  bestial  malig- 
nant reptile  : — not  the  emblem  of  resistance,  but  the 
emblem  of  sin ; not  of  the  sin  that  aspires,  which,  in 
fact,  is  a contradiction  in  terms  ; — no  sin  aspires  ; — 
but  of  the  sin  which  degrades  and  brutifies,  as  all  sin 
does.  In  the  later  representations,  where  the  demon 
takes  the  half-human  shape,  however  hideous  and  de- 
formed, the  allegory  may  so  be  brought  nearer  to  us. 


io6  BACKED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


and  rendered  more  terrible  even  by  a horrid  sympathy 
with  that  human  face,  grinning  in  despite  and  agony ; 
but  much  of  the  beauty  of  the  Scriptural  metaphor  is 
lost.^ 

The  representations  of  St.  Michael  and  the  dragon 
are  so  multifarious  that  I can  only  select  a few  among 
them  as  examples  of  the  different  styles  of  treatment. 

The  symbol,  as  such,  is  supposed  to  have  originated 
with  the  Gnostics  and  Arians,  and  the  earliest  exam- 
ples are  to  be  found  in  the  ancient  churches  on  the 
western  coast  of  Italy,  and  the  old  Lombard  churches. 
I have  never  seen  it  in  the  old  Mosaics  of  the  sixth 
century,  but  in  the  contemporary  sculpture  frequently. 
It  would  be  difficult  to  point  to  the  most  ancient  ex- 
ample, such  is  the  confusion  of  dates  as  regards  dedi- 
cations, restorations,  alterations ; but  I remember  a 
carving  in  white  marble  on  the  porch  of  the  Cathedral 
of  Cortona  (about  the  seventh  century),  which  may  be 
regarded  as  an  example  of  this  primitive  style  of  treat- 
ment. 

Another  instance  will  be  remembered  by  the  traveller 
in  Italy,  the  strange  antique  bas-relief  on  the  fa9ade 
of  that  extraordinary  old  church  the  San  Michele  at 
Pavia ; not  the  figure  in  the  porch,  which  is  modern, 
but  that  which  is  above.  In  the  Menologium  Grecum 
is  a St.  Michael  standing  with  a long  sceptre,  a majestic 
colossal  figure,  while  kneeling  angels  adore  him,  and 
the  demons  crouch  under  his  feet.f 

* Dr.  Arnold  has  some  characteristic  remarks  on  the  half- 
human effigies  of  Satan  ; he  objects  to  the  Miltonic  representation : 
“By  giving  a human  likeness,  and  representing  him  as  a bad 
man,  you  necessarily  get  some  image  of  what  is  good,  as  well  as 

of  what  is  bad,  for  no  man  is  entirely  evil The  hoofs,  the 

horns,  the  tail,  were  all  useful  in  this  way,  as  giving  you  an  image 
of  something  altogether  disgusting  ; and  so  Mephistophiles,  and 
the  utterly  contemptible  and  hateful  character  of  the  Little  Master 
in  Sintram,  are  far  more  true  than  the  Paradise  Lost.”  — Life^ 
vol.  ii. 

t Vatican  MSS.  No.  1613,  A.  D.  989. 


ARCHANGELS, 


107 


By  Martin  Schoen  : St.  Michael,  attired  in  a long 
loose  robe  and  floating  mantle,  tramples  on  the  demon ; 
he  has  thrown  down  the  shield,  and  with  his  lance  in 
both  hands,  but  without  effort,  and  even  with  a calm, 
angelic  dignity,  prepares  to  transfix  his  adversary. 
The  figure  is  singularly  elegant.  The  demon  has  not 
here  the  usual  form  of  a dragon,  but  is  a horrible  non- 
descript reptile,  with  multitudinous  flexile  claws,  like 
those  of  a crab,  stretched  out  to  seize  and  entangle  the 
unwary ; — for  an  emblematical  figure,  very  significant. 
In  an  old  fresco  by  Guariente  di  Padova  ^ the  angel 
is  draped  as  in  Martin  Schoen’s  figure,  but  the  attitude 
is  far  less  elegant. 

Sometimes  the  dragon  has  a small  head  at  the  end 
of  his  tail,  instead  of  the  forked  sting.  I recollect  an 
instance  of  St.  Michael  transfixing  the  large  head,  while 
a smaller  angel,  also  armed,  transfixes  the  other  head.t 
This  is  an  attempt  to  render  literally  the  description  in 
the  Apocalypse : For  their  power  is  in  their  mouth 
and  in  their  tails  : for  their  tails  were  like  unto  serpents, 
and  had  heads,  and  with  them  they  do  hurt.’^  (Rev.  ix. 
19.)  In  a most  elegant  figure  of  St.  Michael,  from  the 
choir  of  the  San  Giovanni,  at  Malta,  I found  the  demon 
thus  characterized,  with  a tail  ending  in  the  serpent 
head. 

In  an  old  Siena  picture  f St.  Michael  is  seated  on  a 
throne  : in  one  hand  a sword,  in  the  other  the  orb  of 
sovereignty ; under  his  feet  lies  the  dragon  mangled 
and  bleeding : a bad  picture,  but  curious  for  the  sin- 
gular treatment. 

In  the  sixteenth  century  these  figures  of  St.  Michael 
become  less  ideal  and  angelic,  and  more  and  more 
chivalrous  and  picturesque.  In  a beautiful  altar-piece 
by  Andrea  del  Sarto,  now  in  the  Florence  Academy, 
there  is  a fine  martial  figure  of  the  Archangel,  which, 
but  for  the  wings,  might  be  mistaken  for  a St.  George ; 

* A.  D.  1365.  Eremitani.  Padua. 

t Greek  Apocalypse  MS.  Paris  Bibl.  Nat. 

J Siena  Acad. 


io8  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


and  in  the  predella  underneath,  on  a small  scale,  he 
is  conqueror  of  the  demon.  The  peculiarity  here  is, 
that  the  demon,  though  vanquished,  makes  a vain 
struggle,  and  has  seized  hold  of  the  belt  of  the  angel, 
who,  with  uplifted  sword,  and  an  action  of  infinite 
grace  and  dignity,  looks  superior  down,  as  one  assured 
of  victory. 

Raphael  has  given  us  three  figures  of  St.  Michael, 
all  different,  and  one  of  them  taking  rank  with  his 
masterpieces. 

The  first  is  an  early  production,  painted  when  he 
was  a youth  of  nineteen  or  twenty,  and  now  in  the 
Louvre.  St.  Michael,  armed  with  a shield  on  which  is 
a red  cross,  his  sword  raised  to  strike,  stands  with  one 
foot  on  a monster ; other  horrible  little  monsters,  like 
figures  in  a dream,  are  around  him  : in  the  background 
are  seen  the  hypocrites  and  thieves  as  described  by 
Dante ; the  first,  in  melancholy  procession,  weighed 
down  with  leaden  cowls ; the  others,  tormented  by 
snakes  : and,  in  the  distance,  the  flaming,  dolorous 
city.  St.  Michael  is  here  the  vanquisher  of  the  Vices. 
It  is  a curious  and  fantastic,  rather  than  poetical,  little 
picture. 

The  second  picture,  also  in  the  Louvre,  was  painted 
by  Raphael,  in  the  maturity  of  his  talent,  for  Francis 
I. : the  king  had  left  to  him  the  choice  of  the  subject, 
and  he  selected  St.  Michael,  the  military  patron  of 
France,  and  of  that  knightly  Order  of  which  the  king 
was  grand  master. 

St.  Michael  — not  standing,  but  hovering  on  his 
poised  wings,  and  grasping  his  lance  in  both  hands  — 
sets  one  foot  lightly  on  the  shoulder  of  the  demon,  who, 
prostrate,  writhes  up,  as  it  were,  and  tries  to  lift  his 
head  and  turn  it  on  his  conqueror  with  one  last  gaze 
of  malignant  rage  and  despair.  The  archangel  looks 
down  upon  him  with  a brow  calm  and  serious  ; in  his 
beautiful  face  is  neither  vengeance  nor  disdain,  — in  his 
attitude,  no  effort;  his  form,  a model  of  youthful  grace 
and  majesty,  is  clothed  in  a brilliant  panoply  of  gold 


ARCHANGELS, 


109 

and  silver ; an  azure  scarf  floats  on  his  shoulders ; his 
wide-spread  wings  are  of  purple,  blue,  and  gold ; his 
light  hair  is  raised,  and  floats  outward  on  each  side  of 
his  head,  as  if  from  the  swiftness  of  his  downward 
motion.  The  earth  emits  flames,  and  seems  opening 
to  swallow  up  the  adversary.  The  form  of  the  demon 
is  human,  but  vulgar  in  its  proportions,  and  of  a 
swarthy  red,  as  if  fire-scathed ; he  has  the  horns  and 
the  serpent-tail ; but,  from  the  attitude  into  which  he 
is  thrown,  the  monstrous  form  is  so  fore-shortened  that 
it  does  not  disgust,  and  the  majestic  figure  of  the  arch- 
angel fills  up  nearly  the  whole  space  — fills  the  eye  — 
fills  the  soul  — with  its  victorious  beauty. 

That  Milton  had  seen  this  picture,  and  that  when 
his  sight  was  quenched  the  winged  saint  ” revisited 
him  in  his  darkness,  who  can  doubt '?  — 

“ Over  his  lucid  arms 
A military  vest  of  purple  flowed 
Livelier  than  Meliboean,  or  the  grain 
Of  Sarra  worn  by  kings  and  heroes  old 
In  time  of  truce. 

By  his  side, 

As  in  a glittering  zodiac,  hung  the  sword, 

Satan’s  dire  dread,  and  in  his  hand  the  spear.” 

A third  St.  Michael,  designed  by  Kaphael,  exists 
only  as  an  engraving.*  The  angel  here  wears  a hel- 
met, and  is  classically  draped  ; he  stands  in  an  attitude 
of  repose,  his  foot  on  the  neck  of  the  demon ; one  hand 
rests  on  the  pummel  of  his  sword,  the  other  holds  the 
lance. 

It  seems  agreed  that,  as  a work  of  art,  there  is  only 
the  St.  Michael  of  Guido  (in  the  Capuccini  at  Kome) 
which  can  be  compared  with  that  of  Raphael;  the 
moment  chosen  is  the  same  ; the  treatment  nearly  the 
same ; the  sentiment  quite  different. 

Here  the  angel,  standing,  yet  scarcely  touching  the 
ground,  poised  on  his  outspread  wings,  sets  his  left  foot 
on  the  head  of  his  adversary ; in  one  hand  he  brandishes 

* By  Marco  di  Ravenna.  Bartsch,  xiv.  106. 


no  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


a sword,  in  the  other  he  holds  the  end  of  a chain,  with 
which  he  is  about  to  bind  down  the  demon  in  the  bot- 
tomless pit.  The  attitude  has  been  criticised,  and 
justly ; the  grace  is  somewhat  mannered,  verging  on 
the  theatrical ; but  Forsyth  is  too  severe  when  he  talks 
of  the  air  of  a dancing-master  ” : one  thing,  however, 
is  certain,  we  do  not  think  about  attitude  when  we  look 
at  RaphaeFs  St.  Michael ; in  Guido's,  it  is  the  first 
thing  that  strikes  us  ; but  when  we  look  further,  the 
head  redeems  all ; it  is  singularly  beautiful,  and  in  the 
blending  of  the  masculine  and  feminine  graces,  in  the 
serene  purity  of  the  brow,  and  the  flow  of  the  golden 
hair,  there  is  something  divine : a slight,  very  slight, 
expression  of  scorn  is  in  the  air  of  the  head.  The 
fiend  is  the  worst  part  of  the  picture ; it  is  not  a fiend, 
but  a degraded  prosaic  human  ruffian ; we  laugh  with 
incredulous  contempt  at  the  idea  of  an  angel  called 
down  from  heaven  to  overcome  such  a wretch.  In 
Raphael  the  fiend  is  human,  but  the  head  has  the  god- 
like ugliness  and  malignity  of  a satyr ; Guido's  fiend 
is  only  stupid  and  base.  It  appears  to  me  that  there  is 
just  the  same  difference  — the  same  kind  of  difference  — 
between  the  angel  of  Raphael  and  the  angel  of  Guido 
as  between  the  description  in  Tasso  and  the  description 
in  Milton ; let  any  one  compare  them.  In  Tasso  we 
are  struck  by  the  picturesque  elegance  of  the  description 
as  a piece  of  art,  the  melody  of  the  verse,  the  admirable 
choice  of  the  expressions,  as  in  Guido  by  the  finished, 
but  somewhat  artificial  and  studied  grace.  In  Ra- 
phael and  Milton  we  see  only  the  vision  of  a shape 
divine." 

One  of  the  most  beautiful  figures  of  St.  Michael  I 
ever  saw  occurs  in  a coronation  of  the  Virgin  by 
Moretto,  and  is  touched  by  his  peculiar  sentiment  of 
serious  tenderness.^ 

In  devotional  pictures  such  figures  of  St.  Michael 
are  sometimes  grouped  poetically  with  other  personages, 
as  in  a most  beautiful  picture  by  lunocenza  da  Imola,t 

* Brescia,  S.  Maria  delle  Grazie.  . t Milan,  Brera. 


ARCHANGELS. 


Ill 


where  the  archangel  tramples  on  the  demon  ; St.  Paul 
standing  on  one  side  and  St.  Benedict  on  the  other, 
both  of  whom  had  striven  with  the  fiend  and  had  over- 
come him : the  Madonna  and  Child  are  seen  in  a glory 
above. 

And  again  in  a picture  by  Mabuse,^  where  St. 
Michael,  as  patron,  sets  his  foot  on  the  black,  grinning 
fiend,  and  looks  down  on  a kneeling  votary,  while  the 
votary,  with  his  head  turned  away,  appears  to  be  wor- 
shipping, not  the  protecting  angel,  but  the  Madonna, 
to  whom  St.  Michael  presents  him.  Such  votive  pic- 
tures are  not  uncommon,  and  have  a peculiar  grace 
and  significance.  Here  the  archangel  bears  the  vic- 
torious banner  of  the  cross  ; — he  has  conquered.  In 
some  instances  he  holds  in  his  hand  the  head  of  the 
Dragon,  and  in  all  instances  it  is,  or  ought  to  be,  the 
head  of  the  Dragon  which  is  transfixed  : Thou  shalt 
bruise  his  head.'^ 

Those  representations  in  which  St.  Michael  is  not 
conqueror,  but  combatant,  in  which  the  moment  is  one 
of  transition,  are  less  frequent ; it  is  then  an  action,  not 
an  emblem,  and  the  composition  is  historical  rather  than 
symbolical.  It  is  the  strife  with  Lucifer ; when 
Michael  and  his  angels  fought  against  the  dragon,  and 
the  dragon  fought  and  his  angels,  and  the  great  dragon 
was  cast  out.^’  (Rev.  xii.  7.)  In  churches  and  chapels 
dedicated  to  St.  Michael,  or  to  ‘^the  Holy  Angels,”  this 
appropriate  subject  often  occurs ; as  in  a famous  fresco 
by  Spinello  d’ Arezzo,  at  Arezzo. t In  the  middle  of 
the  composition,  Michael,  armed  with  sword  and  shield, 
is  seen  combating  the  dragon  with  seven  heads,  as  de- 
scribed in  the  Apocalypse.  Above  and  around  are 
many  angels  also  armed.  At  the  top  of  the  picture  is 
seen  an  empty  throne,  the  throne  which  Lucifer  had 

set  in  the  north  ” ; below  is  seen  Lucifer,  falling  with 
his  angels  over  the  parapet  of  heaven.  (Isaiah  xiv.  13.) 

* Boisseree  Gallery. 

t A.  D.  1400.  Engraved  in  Lusinio’s  “ Early  Florentine  Mas- 
ters.” 


1 12  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


The  painter  tasked  his  skill  to  render  the  transformation 
of  the  spirits  of  light  into  spirits  of  darkness  as  fearful 
and  as  hideous  as  possible ; and,  being  a man  of  a 
nervous  temperament,  the  continual  dwelling  on  these 
horrors  began  at  length  to  trouble  his  brain.  He 
fancied  that  Lucifer  appeared  to  him  in  a dream,  de- 
manding by  what  authority  he  had  portrayed  him 
under  an  aspect  so  revolting  1 — the  painter  awoke  in 
horror,  was  seized  with  delirious  fever,  and  so  died. 

In  his  combat  with  the  dragon,  Michael  is  sometimes 
represented  alone,  and  sometimes  as  assisted  by  the  two 
other  archangels,  Gabriel  and  Baphael : as  in  the  fresco 
by  Signorelli,  at  Orvieto,  where  one  of  the  angels, 
whom  we  may  suppose  to  be  Raphael,  looks  down  on 
the  falling  demons  with  an  air  of  melancholy,  almost 
of  pity. 

In  a picture  by  Marco  Oggione  (Milan,  Brera)  Mi- 
chael has  precipitated  the  demon  into  the  gulf,  and 
hovers  above,  while  Raphael  and  Gabriel  stand  below 
on  each  side,  looking  on ; all  are  clothed  in  voluminous 
loose  white  draperies,  more  like  priests  than  warriors ; 
but  it  is  a fine  picture. 

In  the  large  Rubens-room  at  Munich  there  are  two 
pictures  of  Michael  subduing  the  revolted  angels.  The 
large  one,  in  which  Michael  is  the  principal  figure,  is 
not  agreeable.  Rubens  could  not  lift  himself  sufficient- 
ly above  the  earth  to  conceive  and  embody  the  spiritual 
and  heroic  and  beautiful  in  one  divine  form;  his  St. 
Michael  is  vulgar.  The  smaller  composition,  where 
the  fallen,  or  rather  falling,  angels  fill  the  whole  space, 
is  a most  wonderful  effort  of  artistic  invention.  At  the 
summit  of  the  picture  stands  St.  Michael,  the  shield  in 
one  hand,  in  the  other  the  forked  lightnings  of  Divine 
wrath ; and  from  above  the  rebel  host  tumble  headlong 
<^in  hideous  ruin  and  combustion  hurled,”  and  with 
such  affright  and  amazement  in  every  face,  such  a 
downward  movement  in  every  limb,  that  we  recoil  in 
dizzy  horror  while  we  look  upon  it.  It  is  curious  that 
Rubens  should  have  introduced  female  reprobate  spir- 


ARCHANGELS. 


113 

its : if  he  intended  his  picture  as  an  allegory,  merely 
the  conquest  of  the  spiritual  over  the  sensual,  he  is  ex- 
cusable ; but  if  he  meant  to  figure  the  vision  in  the 
Apocalypse,  it  is  a deviation  from  the  proper  Scriptural 
treatment,  which  is  inexcusable.  This  picture  remains, 
however,  as  a whole,  a perfect  miracle  of  art : the  fault 
is,  that  we  feel  inclined  to  applaud  as  we  do  at  some 
astonishing  tour  de  force;  such  at  least  was  my  own 
feeling,  and  this  is  not  the  feeling  appropriate  to  the 
subject.  Though  this  famous  picture  is  entitled  the 
Fall  of  the  Angels,  I have  some  doubts  as  to  whether 
this  was  the  intention  of  the  painter : whether  he  did 
not  mean  to  express  the  fall  of  sinners,  flung  by  the 
Angel  of  judgment  into  the  abyss  of  wrath  and  per- 
dition 1 

In  those  devotional  pictures  which  exhibit  St.  Mi- 
chael as  Lord  of  souls,  he  is  winged  and  unarmed,  and 
holds  the  balance.  In  each  scale  sits  a little  naked 
figure,  representing  a human  soul ; one  of  these  is 
usually  represented  with  hands  joined  as  in  thankful- 
ness, — he  is  the  heato^  the  elected ; the  other  is  in  an 
attitude  of  horror,  — he  is  the  rejected,  the  reprobate ; 
and  often,  but  not  necessarily,  the  idea  is  completed  by 
the  introduction  of  a demon,  who  is  grasping  at  the 
descending  scale,  either  with  his  talons,  or  with  the 
long  two-pronged  hook,  such  as  is  given  to  Pluto  in 
the  antique  sculpture. 

Sometimes  St.  Michael  is  thus  represented  singly; 
sometimes  very  beautifully  in  Madonna  pictures,  as  in 
a picture  by  Leonardo  da  Vinci  (a.  d.  1498),  where  St. 
Michael,  a graceful  angelic  figure,  with  light  flowing 
hair,  kneels  before  the  Madonna,  and  presents  the  bal- 
aince  to  the  Infant,  who  seems  to  welcome  the  pious 
little  soul  who  sits  in  the  uppermost  scale. 

I have  seen  this  idea  varied.  St.  Michael  stands 
majestic  with  the  balance  poised  in  his  hands  : instead 
of  a human  figure  in  either  scale,  there  are  weights ; on 
one  side  is  seen  a company  of  five  or  six  little  naked 
shivering  souls,  as  if  waiting  for  their  doom;  on  the 


1 14  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


other  several  demons,  one  of  whom  with  his  hook  is 
pulling  down  the  ascending  scale.*  With  or  without 
the  balance,  St.  Michael  figures  as  Lord  of  souls  when 
introduced  into  pictures  of  the  Assumption  or  the 
Glorification  of  the  Virgin.  To  understand  the  whole 
beauty  and  propriety  of  such  representations,  we  must 
remember  that,  according  to  one  of  the  legends  of  the 
death  of  the  Virgin,  her  spirit  was  consigned  to  the 
care  of  St.  Michael  until  it  was  permitted  to  reanimate 
the  spotless  form,  and  with  it  ascend  to  heaven. 

In  one  or  two  instances  only,  I have  seen  St.  Michael 
without  wings.  In  general,  an  armed  figure  unwinged 
and  standing  on  a dragon,  we  may  presume  to  be  a St. 
George ; but  where  the  balance  is  introduced,  it  leaves 
no  doubt  of  the  personality,  — it  is  a St.  Michael.  Oc- 
casionally the  two  characters  — the  protecting  Angel 
of  light  and  the  Angel  of  judgment  — are  united,  and 
we  see  St.  Michael,  with  the  dragon  under  his  feet  and 
the  balance  in  his  hand.  This  was  a favorite  and  ap- 
propriate subject  on  tombs  and  chapels  dedicated  to  the 
dead ; such  is  the  beautiful  bas-relief  on  the  tomb  of 
Henry  VII.  in  Westminster  Abbey. 

In  some  representations  of  the  last  judgment,  St. 
Michael,  instead  of  the  banner  and  cross,  bears  the 
scales ; as  in  the  very  curious  bas-relief  on  the  fa9ade 
of  the  church  of  St.  Trophime  at  Arles.  St.  Michael 
here  has  a balance  so  large  that  it  is  almost  as  high  as 
himself ; it  is  not  a mere  emblem,  but  a fact ; a soul 
sits  in  each  scale,  and  a third  is  rising  up ; the  angel 
holds  out  one  hand  to  assist  him.  In  another  part  of 
the  same  bas-relief  St.  Michael  is  seen  carrying  a hu- 
man soul  (represented  as  a little  naked  figure)  and 
bringing  it  to  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  In  a celebrated 
Last  Judgment,  attributed  by  some  authors  to  John 
Van  Eyck,  by  others  to  Justus  of  Ghent,  St.  Michael 
is  grandly  introduced.  High  up,  in  the  centre,  sits  the 
Saviour,  with  the  severe  expression  of  the  judge.  Above 
him  hover  four  angels  with  the  instruments  of  the  Pas- 

* Psalter  of  St.  Louis,  Bib.  de  1’ Arsenal,  Paris. 


ARCHANGELS. 


”5 

slon,  and  below  him  three  others  sounding  trumpets, 

I suppose  the  seven  pre-eminent  angels : the  Virgin 
and  St.  John  the  Baptist  on  each  side,  and  then  the 
Apostles  ranged  in  the  usual  manner.  In  the  lower 
half  of  the  picture  stands  St.  Michael,  clad  in  golden 
armor,  so  bright  as  to  reflect  in  the  most  complete  man- 
ner all  the  surrounding  objects.  His  figure  is  slender 
and  elegant,  but  colossal  as  compared  to  the  rest.  He 
seems  to  be  bending  earnestly  forward,  a splendid  pur- 
ple mantle  falls  from  his  shoulders  to  the  ground,  and 
his  large  wings  are  composed  of  glittering  peacock’s 
feathers.  He  holds  the  balance ; the  scale  with  the 
good  rests  on  earth,  but  that  with  the  souls  which  are 
found  wanting  mounts  into  air.  A demon  stands  ready 
to  receive  them,  and  towards  this  scale  St.  Michael 
points  with  the  end  of  a black  staff  which  he  holds  in 
his  right  hand.”  This  picture,  which  is  a chef-d’oeuvre 
of  the  early  German  school,  is  now  in  the  church  of 
St.  Mary  at  Dantzig. 

The  historical  subjects  in  which  St.  Michael  is  intro- 
duced exhibit  him  as  prince  of  the  Hebrew  nation,  and 
belong  properly  to  the  Old  Testament.*  After  the 
confusion  of  tongues,  and  the  scattering  of  the  people, 
which  occurred  on  the  building  of  the  Tower  of  Babel, 
every  separate  nation  had  an  angel  to  direct  it.  To 
Michael  was  given  in  charge  the  people  of  the  Lord. 
The  Hebrews  being  carried  away  captive  into  the  land 
of  Assyria,  Daniel  prayed  that  they  might  be  permit- 
ted to  return  when  the  seventy  years  of  captivity  were 
over ; but  the  Angel  of  Persia  opposed  himself  on  this 
occasion  to  the  angels  Michael  and  Gabriel.  He  wished 
to  retain  the  Jews  in  captivity,  because  he  was  glad  to 
have,  within  the  bounds  of  his  jurisdiction,  a people 
who  served  the  true  God,  and  because  he  hoped  that  in 
time  the  captive  Jews  would  convert  to  the  truth  the 
Assyrians  and  Persians  committed  to  his  care.”  This 

* St.  Ephrem,  Bib.  Orient.,  tom.  i.  p.  78.  De  Beausobre,  vol. 
ii.  p.  17. 


ii6  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


curious  passage  from  one  of  the  early  Christian  fathers, 
representing  the  good  angels  as  opposed  to  each  other, 
and  one  of  them  as  disputing  the  commands  of  God,  is 
an  instance  of  the  confused  ideas  on  the  subject  of  an- 
gels which  prevailed  in  the  ancient  Church,  and  which 
prevail,  I imagine,  in  the  minds  of  many  even  at  this 
day. 

In  the  story  of  Hagar  in  the  wilderness,  it  is  Michael 
who  descends  to  her  aid.  In  the  sacrifice  of  Isaac,  it 
is  Michael  who  stays  the  arm  of  Abraham.  It  is  Mi- 
chael who  brings  the  plagues  on  Egypt,  and  he  it  is 
who  leads  the  Israelites  through  the  wilderness.  It  was 
the  belief  of  the  Jews,  and  of  some  of  the  early  Christian 
fathers,  that  through  his  angel  (not  in  person)  God 
spoke  to  Moses  from  the  burning  bush  and  delivered  to 
him  the  law  on  Mount  Sinai ; and  that  the  angel  so 
delegated  was  Michael. 

It  is  Michael  who  combats  with  Lucifer  for  the  body 
of  Moses.  (Jude  v.  9.)  According  to  one  interpre- 
tation of  this  curious  passage  of  Scripture,  the  demon 
wished  to  enter  and  to  possess  the  form  of  Moses,  in 
order  to  deceive  the  Jews  by  personating  their  leader ; 
but  others  say,  that  Michael  contended  for  the  body, 
that  he  might  bury  it  in  an  unknown  place,  lest  the 
Jews  should  fall  into  the  sin  of  paying  divine  honors  to 
their  legislator.  This  is  a fine  picturesque  subject : the 
rocky  desert,  the  body  of  Moses  dead  on  the  earth,  the 
contest  of  the  good  and  evil  angel  confronting  each 
other,  — these  are  grand  materials  ! It  must  have 
been  rarely  treated,  for  I remember  but  one  instance,  — 
the  fresco  by  L.  Signorelli,  in  the  Sistine  Chapel  in  the 
Vatican. 

It  is  Michael  who  intercepts  Balaam  ^ when  on  his 
way  to  curse  the  people  of  Israel,  and  puts  blessings 
into  his  mouth  instead  of  curses  : a subject  often  treat- 
ed, but  as  a fact  rather  than  a vision. 

It  is  Michael  who  stands  before  Joshua  in  the  plain 
by  Jericho : “ And  Joshua  said  unto  him.  Art  thou 

* Didron,  Manuel  Grec.,  p.  101. 


ARCHANGELS. 


117 

for  us,  or  for  our  adversaries  ? And  he  said,  Nay ; but 
as  captain  of  the  host  of  the  Lord  am  I now  come. 
And  Joshua  fell  on  his  face  to  the  e^rth,  and  did  wor- 
ship, and  said  unto  him.  What  saith  my  lord  unto  his 
servant  ? And  the  captain  of  the  Lord’s  host  said  unto 
Joshua,  Loose  thy  shoe  from  off  thy  foot ; for  the  place 
whereon  thou  standest  is  holy.”  (Joshua  v.  13 -15.) 
This  subject  is  very  uncommon.  In  the  Greek  MS. 
already  alluded  to,  I met  with  a magnificent  example, 
— magnificent  in  point  of  sentiment,  though  half-ruined 
and  effaced ; the  God-like  bearing  of  the  armed  angel, 
looking  down  on  the  prostrate  Joshua,  is  here  as  fine  as 
possible. 

It  is  Michael  who  appears  to  Gideon.^  It  is  Michael 
who  chastises  David.f  It  is  Michael  who  exterminates 
the  army  of  Sennacherib ; a subject  magnificently 
painted  by  Rubens.  (Some  suppose  that  on  this  occa- 
sion God  made  use  of  the  ministry  of  an  evil  angel.  J) 

It  is  Michael  who  descends  to  deliver  the  Three 
Children  from  the  burning  fiery  furnace.  The  Three 
Children  in  the  furnace  is  a subject  which  appears  very 
early  in  the  catacombs  and  on  the  sarcophagi  as  a sym- 
bol of  the  redemption; — so  early,  that  it  is  described 
by  Tertullian ; § but  in  almost  all  the  examples  given 
there  are  three  figures  only : where  there  is  a fourth,  it 
is,  of  course,  the  protecting  angel,  but  he  is  without 
wings.ll 

Michael  seizes  the  prophet  Habakkuk  by  the  hair  of 
the  head,  and  carries  him  to  Babylon  to  the  den  of 
lions,  that  he  may  feed  Daniel.Tf  This  apocryphal 

* Judges  vi.  11.  t 2 Sam.  xxiv.  16. 

I Calmet.  § De  Oratione,  cap.  xii. 

II  Bottari,  Tab.  xxii.  On  the  early  Christian  sarcophagi,  as  I 
have  already  observed,  there  are  no  winged  angels.  In  the  oft- 
repeated  subject  of  the  “Three  Children  in  the  burning  fiery 
furnace,”  the  fourth  figure,  when  introduced,  may  represent  a sou 
of  God,  — i.  e.  an  angel;  or  the  Son  of  God,  i.  e.  Christ,  as  it  has 
been  interpreted  in  both  senses. 

IT  Bel  and  the  Dragon,  26. 


ii8  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


subject  occurs  on  several  sarcophagi.^  I have  seen  it 
also  in  illuminated  MSS.,  but  cannot  at  this  moment 
refer  to  it.  It  ocqurs  in  a series  of  late  Flemish  prints 
after  Hemskirk, — of  which  there  are  good  impressions 
in  the  British  Museum. 

The  Archangel  Michael  is  not  named  in  the  Gos- 
pels ; but  in  the  legends  of  the  Madonna,  as  we  shall 
see  hereafter,  he  plays  a very  important  part,  being 
deputed  by  Christ  to  announce  to  his  mother  her  ap- 
proaching end,  and  to  receive  her  soul.  For  the  pres- 
ent I will  only  remark,  that  when,  in  accordance  with 
this  very  ancient  legend,  an  angel  is  represented  kneel- 
ing before  the  Madonna,  and  holding  in  his  hand  a 
palm  surmounted  by  stars,  or  a lighted  taper,  this  angel 
is  not  Gabriel,  announcing  the  conception  of  Christ, 
as  is  usually  supposed,  but  Michael,  as  the  angel  of 
death,  t 

The  legend  of  Monte  Galgano  I saw  in  a large 
fresco,  in  the  Santa  Croce  at  Florence,  by  a paintqi*  of 
the  Giotto  school ; but  in  so  bad  a state,  that  I could 
only  make  out  a bull  on  the  top  of  a mountain,  and  a 
man  shooting  with  a bow  and  arrow.  On  the  opposite 
w'all  is  the  combat  of  Michael  with  the  dragon,  — very 
spirited,  and  in  much  better  preservation.  To  distin- 
guish the  apparition  of  St.  Michael  on  Monte  Galgano 
from  the  apparition  on  Mont  St.  Michel,  in  both  of 
which  a bull  and  a bishop  are  principal  figures,  it  is 
necessary  to  observe,  that,  in  the  last-named  subject, 
the  sea  is  always  introduced  at  the  base  of  the  picture, 
and  that  the  former  is  most  common  in  Italian,  and 
the  latter  in  French  works  of  art.  In  the  French 
stained  glass  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries, 
St.  Michael  is  a very  popular  subject,  either  with  the 
dragon,  or  the  scales,  or  both. 

Lately,  in  removing  the  whitewash  from  the  east 
wall  of  the  nave  of  Preston  Church,  near  Brighton, 


* Bottari,  XV.  49,  84. 


t See  Legends  of  the  Madonna. 


ARCHANGELS. 


119 

was  discovered  the  outline  of  a group  of  figures,  repre- 
senting St.  Michael,  fully  draped,  and  with  large  wings, 
bearing  the  balance ; in  each  scale  a human  soul.  The 
scale  containing  the  heato  is  assisted  by  a figure  fully 
draped,  but  so  ruined  that  it  is  not  possible  to  say 
whether  it  represents  the  Virgin  or  the  guardian  saint 
of  the  person  who  caused  the  fresco  to  be  painted.  I 
am  told  that  in  the  old  churches  of  Cornwall,  and  of 
the  towns  on  the  south  coast,  which  had  frequent  inter- 
course with  France,  effigies  of  St.  Michael  occur  fre- 
quently, both  in  painting  and  sculpture.  On  the  old 
English  coin,  thence  called  an  angel^  we  have  the  figure 
of  St.  Michael,  who  was  one  of  the  patron  saints  of 
our  Norman  kings. 

I must  now  trust  to  the  reader  to  contemplate  the 
figures  of  St.  Michael,  so  frequent  and  so  varied  in 
Art,  with  reference  to  these  suggestions;  and  leaving 
for  the  present  this  radiant  Spirit,  this  bright  similitude 
of  a primal  and  universal  faith,  we  turn  to  his  angelic 
companions. 


St.  Gabriel. 

Lat.  Sanctus  Gabriel.  Ital.  San  Gabriello,  San  Gabriele,  L’  An- 
gelo Annunziatore.  Fr.  St.  Gabriel. 

“ I am  Gabriel,  that  stand  in  the  presence  of  God.”  — Luke  i.  19. 

In  those  passages  of  Scripture  where  the  Angel  Ga- 
briel is  mentioned  by  name,  he  is  brought  before  us  in 
the  character  of  a Messenger  only,  and  always  on  im- 
portant occasions.  In  the  Old  Testament  he  is  sent  to 
Daniel  to  announce  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  cap- 
tivity, and  to  explain  the  vision  which  prefigures  the 
destinies  of  mighty  empires.  His  contest  with  the 
Angel  of  the  kingdom  of  Persia,  when  St.  Michael 
comes  to  his  assistance,  would  be  a splendid  subject  in 
fit  hands  ; I do  not  know  that  it  has  ever  been  painted. 
In  the  New  Testament  the  mission  of  Gabriel  is  yet 
more  sublime  : he  first  appears  to  the  high-priest  Zach- 


120  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


arias,  and  foretells  the  birth  of  John  the  Baptist, — a 
subject  which  belongs  especially  to  the  life  of  that  saint. 
Six  months  later,  Gabriel  is  sent  to  announce  the  ap- 
pearance of  the  Kedeemer  of  mankind.* 

In  the  Jewish  tradition,  Gabriel  is  the  guardian  of 
the  celestial  treasury.  Hence,  I presume,  Milton  has 
made  him  chief  guardian  of  Paradise  : — 

“ Betwixt  these  rocky  pillars  Gabriel  sat, 

Chief  of  the  angelic  guards,  awaiting  night.” 

As  the  Angel  who  announced  the  birth  of  Christ,  he 
has  been  venerated  as  the  Angel  who  presides  over 
child-birth.  He  foretells  the  birth  of  Samson,  and,  in 
the  apocr)^hal  legends,  he  foretells  to  Joachim  the 
birth  of  the  Virgin.  In  the  East,  he  is  of  great  im- 
portance. Mahomet  selected  him  as  his  immediate 
teacher  and  inspirer,  and  he  became  the  great  protect- 
ing angel  of  Islamism  : hence  between  Michael,  the 
protector  of  the  Jews  and  Christians,  and  Gabriel,  the 
protector  of  the  Moslem,  there  is  supposed  to  exist  no 
friendly  feeling,  — rather  the  reverse. 

In  the  New  Testament,  Gabriel  is  a much  more  im- 
portant personage  than  Michael ; yet  I have  never  met 
with  any  picture  in  which  he  figures  singly  as  an  object 
of  worship.  In  devotional  pictures  he  figures  as  the 
second  of  the  three  Archangels,  — “ Secondo  fra  i 
primi,^’  as  Tasso  styles  him  ; or  in  his  peculiar  char- 
acter as  the  divine  messenger  of  grace,  “ V Angelo  an- 
nunziatore.”  He  then  usually  bears  in  one  hand  a lily 
or  a sceptre ; in  the  other  a scroll  on  which  is  inscribed, 
<<  Ave  Maria,  Gratia  plena  ! t 

* “ The  stone  on  which  stood  the  Angel  Gabriel  when  he  an- 
nounced to  the  most  Blessed  Virgin  the  great  mystery  of  the 
Incarnation,”  is  among  the  relics  enumerated  as  existing  in  the 
church  of  the  Santa  Croce  at  Rome. 

t In  Paradise  he  sings  forever  the  famous  salutation : 

“ Cantando  Ave  Maria  gratia  'plena 
Dinanzi  a lei  le  sue  ali  distese.” 

Dante,  Far.  32. 


ARCHANGELS, 


I2I 


The  subject  called  the  Annunciation  is  one  of  the 
most  frequent  and  most  important,  as  it  is  one  of  the 
most  beautiful,  in  the  whole  range  of  Christian  Art. 
It  belongs,  however,  to  the  history  of  the  Virgin, 
where  I shall  have  occasion  to  treat  it  at  length  ; yet 
as  the  Angel  Gabriel  here  assumes,  by  direct  Scriptural 
testimony,  a distinct  name  and  personality,  and  as  the 
dignity  and  significance  proper  to  a subject  so  often 
unworthily  and  perversely  treated  depend  very  much 
on  the  character  and  deportment  given  to  the  celestial 
messenger,  I shall  make  a few  observations  in  this 
place  with  respect  to  the  treatment  of  the  angel,  only 
reserving  the  theme  in  its  general  bearing  for  future 
consideration. 

In  the  early  representations  of  the  Annunciation  it 
is  treated  as  a religious  mystery,  and  with  a solemn 
simplicity  and  purity  of  feeling,  which  is  very  striking 
and  graceful  in  itself,  as  well  as  in  harmony  with  the 
peculiar  manner  of  the  divine  revelation.  The  scene 
is  generally  a porch  or  portico  of  a temple-like  build- 
ing ; the  Virgin  stands  (she  is  very  seldom  seated,  and 
then  on  a kind  of  raised  throne)  ; the  angel  stands  be- 
fore her,  at  some  distance  : very  often,  she  is  within 
the  portico ; he  is  without.  Gabriel  is  a majestic 
being,  generally  robed  in  white,  wearing  the  tunic 
and  pallium  a V antique,  his  flowing  hair  bound  by  a 
jewelled  tiara,  with  large  many-colored  wings,  and 
bearing  the  sceptre  of  sovereignty  in  the  left  hand, 
while  the  right  is  extended  in  the  act  of  benediction  as 
well  as  salutation  : Hail ! thou  that  art  highly  fa- 
vored ! Blessed  art  thou  among  women  ! He  is 
the  principal  flgure  : the  attitude  of  the  Virgin,  with 
her  drapery  drawn  over  her  head,  her  eyes  drooping, 
and  her  hands  folded  on  her  bosom,  is  always  expres- 
sive of  the  utmost  submission  and  humility.  So  Dante 
introduces  the  image  of  the  lowly  Virgin  receiving  the 
angel  as  an  illustration  of  the  virtue  of  Humility:  — 

Ed  avea  in  atto  impressa  esta  favella 

‘ Ecce  ancilla  Dei ! ’ ” — 


122 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


and  Flaxman  has  admirably  embodied  this  idea,  both 
in  the  lofty  angel  with  outspread  arms,  and  the  kneel- 
ing Virgin.  Sometimes  the  angel  floats  in,  with  his 
arms  crossed  over  his  bosom,  but  still  with  the  air  of  a 
superior  being,  as  in  the  beautiful  figure  by  Lorenzo 
Monaco,  in  the  Florence  Gallery. 

The  two  figures  are  not  always  in  the  same  picture ; 
it  was  a very  general  custom  to  place  the  Virgin  and 
the  Angel,  the  Annunziata  ” and  the  Angelo  an- 
nunziatore,'^  one  on  each  side  of  the  altar,  the  place 
of  the  Virgin  being  usually  to  the  right  of  the  specta- 
tor ; sometimes  the  figures  are  half-length : sometimes, 
when  placed  in  the  same  picture,  they  are  in  two  sepa- 
rate compartments,  a pillar,  or  some  other  ornament, 
running  up  the  picture  between  them  ; as  in  many  old 
altar-pieces,  where  the  two  figures  are  placed  above  or 
on  each  side  of  the  Nativity,  or  the  Baptism,  or  the 
Marriage  at  Cana,  or  some  other  scene  from  the  life 
and  miracles  of  our  Saviour.  This  subject  does  not 
appear  on  the  sarcophagi ; the  earliest  instance  I have 
met  with  is  in  the  mosaic  series  over  the  arch  in  front 
of  the  choir  in  the  church  of  Santa  Maria  Maggiore,  at 
Borne,  executed  in  the  fifth  century.  Here  we  have 
two  successive  moments  represented  together.  In  the 
first  the  angel  is  sent  on  his  mission,  and  appears  flying 
down  from  heaven ; the  earliest  instance  I have  seen 
of  an  angel  in  the  act  of  flight.  In  the  second  group 
the  Virgin  appears  seated  on  a throne ; two  angels 
stand  behind  her,  supposed  to  represent  her  guardian 
angels,  and  the  angel  Gabriel  stands  in  front  with  one 
hand  extended.  The  dresses  are  classical,  and  there  is 
not  a trace  of  the  mediicval  feeling,  or  style,  in  the 
whole  composition. 

In  the  Greek  pictures,  the  Angel  and  the  Virgin 
both  stand ; and  in  the  Annunciation  of  Cimabue  the 
Greek  formula  is  strictly  adhered  to.  I have  seen  pic- 
tures of  the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  in  which 
Gabriel  enters  as  a princely  ambassador,  with  three 
little  angels  bearing  up  his  mantle  behind  : in  a pic- 


ARCHANGELS. 


123 


ture  in  the  collection  of  Prince  Wallers tein,  one  meek 
and  beautiful  angel  bears  up  the  rich  robes  of  the  ma- 
jestic archangel,  like  a page  in  the  train  of  a sovereign 
prince.  But  from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury we  perceive  a change  of  feeling,  as  well  as  a change 
of  style  : the  veneration  paid  to  the  Virgin  demanded 
another  treatment.  She  becomes  not  merely  the  prin- 
cipal person,  but  the  superior  being ; she  is  the  Be- 
gina  angelorum,^^  and  the  angel  bows  to  her,  or  kneels 
before  her,  as  to  a queen.^  Thus  in  the  famous  altar- 
piece  at  Cologne,  the  angel  kneels  ; he  bears  a sceptre, 
and  also  a scaled  roll,  as  if  he  were  a celestial  ambas- 
sador delivering  his  credentials  : about  the  same  period 
we  sometimes  see  the  angel  merely  wdth  his  hands 
folded  over  his  breast,  and  his  head  inclined,  delivering 
his  message  as  if  to  a superior  being. 

I cannot  decide  at  what  period  the  lily  first  replaced 
the  sceptre  in  the  hand  of  the  angel,  not  merely  as  the 
emblem  of  purity,  but  as  the  symbol  of  the  Virgin 
from  the  verse  in  the  Canticles  usually  applied  to  her : 

I am  the  rose  of  Sharon,  and  the  lily  of  the  valley.^' 
A lily  is  often  placed  in  a vase  near  the  Virgin,  or 
in  the  foreground  of  the  picture  : of  all  the  attributes 
placed  in  the  hand  of  the  angel,  the  lily  is  the  most 
usual,  and  the  most  expressive. 

The  painters  of  Siena,  who  often  displayed  a new 
and  original  sentiment  in  the  treatment  of  a subject, 
have  represented  the  angel  Gabriel  as  the  announcer 
of  peace  on  earth  ; he  kneels  before  the  Virgin, 
crowned  with  olive,  and  bearing  a branch  of  olive  in 

* See  the  Ursuline  Manual.  When  an  angel  anciently  ap- 
peared to  the  patriarchs  or  prophets,  he  was  received  with  due 
honor  as  being  exalted  above  them,  both  by  nature  and  grace  j 
but  when  an  archangel  visited  Mary,  he  was  struck  with  her  supe- 
rior dignity  and  pre-eminence,  and,  approaching,  saluted  her  with 
admiration  and  respect.  Though  accustomed  to  the  lustre  of  the 
highest  heavenly  spirits,  yet  he  was  dazzled  and  amazed  at  the 
dignity  and  spiritual  glory  of  her  whom  he  came  to  salute  Mother 
of  God,  while  the  attention  of  the  whole  heavenly  court  was  with 
rapture  fixed  upon  her.” 


124  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

his  hand,  as  in  a picture  by  Taddeo  Bartoli.  There 
is  also  a beautiful  St.  Gabriel  by  Martin  Schdn,  stand- 
ing, and  crowned  with  olive.  So  Dante  : — 

“ L’  angel  che  venne  in  terra  col  decreto 
Della  molt’  anni  lagrimata  pace.” 

Another  passage  in  Dante  which  the  painters  seem  to 
have  had  before  them  shows  us  the  Madonna  as  queen, 
and  the  angel  as  adoring  : — 

“ Qual  e quel  angel  che  con  tanto  giuoco 
Guarda  negli  occhi  la  nostra  regina 
Innamorato  si  che  par  di  fuoco  ? ” 

Ed  egli  a me,  — “ Baldezza  e leggiadria 
Quanta  esser  puote  in  angelo  ed  in  alma 
Tutta  e in  lui,  e si  volem  che  sia  ! ” 

It  is  in  seeking  this  haldezza  e leggiadria  in  a mis- 
taken sense  that  the  later  painters  have  forgotten  all 
the  spiritual  dignity  of  the  Angel  Messenger. 

Where  the  angel  bears  a lighted  taper,  which  the 
Virgin  extends  her  hand  to  take  from  him  ; or,  kneel- 
ing, bears  in  his  hand  a palm-branch,  surmounted  by 
seven  or  twelve  stars,  the  subject  represented  is  not  the 
announcement  of  the  birth  of  the  Saviour,  but  the 
death  of  the  Virgin,  a part  of  her  legendary  history 
which  is  rarely  treated  and  easily  mistaken ; then  the 
announcing  angel  is  not  Gabriel,  but  Michael.* 

In  old  German  Art,  the  angel  in  the  Annunciation 
is  habited  in  priestly  garments  richly  embroidered. 
The  scene  is  often  the  bedroom  of  the  Virgin ; and 
while  the  announcing  angel  enters  and  kneels  at  the 
threshold  of  the  door,  the  Holy  Ghost  enters  at  the 
window.  I have  seen  examples  in  which  Gabriel, 
entering  at  a door  behind  the  Virgin,  unfolds  his  offi- 
cial ‘‘  Ave  Maria.”  He  has  no  lily,  or  sceptre,  and 
she  is  apparently  conscious  of  his  presence  without 
seeing  him.f 

* The  Annunciation  and  the  Death  of  the  Virgin,  and  the  ofiBce 
and  character  of  the  announcing  angel  in  both  subjects,  are  fully- 
treated  and  illustrated  in  the  “ Legends  of  the  Madonna.” 

t As  in  a very  curious  print  by  “ Le  Graveur  de  1466  ” j and 
there  are  other  instances. 


ARCHANGELS. 


125 


But  in  the  representations  of  the  sixteenth  century 
we  find  neither  the  solemnity  of  the  early  Italian  nor 
the  naivete  of  the  early  German  school ; and  this  di- 
vine subject  becomes  more  and  more  materialized  and 
familiarized,  until  losing  its  spiritual  character,  it  strikes 
us  as  shockingly  prosaic.  One  cannot  say  that  the 
angel  is  invariably  deficient  in  dignity  or  the  Virgin 
in  grace.  In  the  Venetian  school  and  the  Bologna 
school  we  find  occasionally  very  beautiful  Annuncia- 
tions ; but  in  general  the  half-draped  fluttering  angels 
and  the  girlish-looking  Virgins  are  nothing  less  than 
offensive ; and  in  the  attempt  to  vary  the  sentiment, 
the  naturalisti  have  here  run  the  risk  of  being  much  too 
natural. 

In  the  Cathedral  at  Orvieto,  the  Annunciation  is  rep- 
resented in  front  of  the  choir  by  two  colossal  statues 
by  Francesco  Mochi : to  the  right  is  the  angel  Gabriel, 
poised  on  a marble  cloud,  in  an  attitude  so  fantastic 
that  he  looks  as  if  he  were  going  to  dance ; on  the 
other  side  stands  the  Virgin,  conceived  in  a spirit  how 
different ! — yet  not  less  mistaken  ; she  has  started 
from  her  throne;  with  one  hand  she  grasps  it,  with 
the  other  she  seems  to  guard  her  person  against  the 
intruder  : majesty  at  once,  and  fear,  a look  of  insulted 
dignity,  are  in  the  air  and  attitude,  — par  die  minacci 
e tema  net  tempo  istesso”  — but  I thought  of  Mrs.  Sid- 
dons  while  I looked,  not  of  the  Virgin  Mary. 

This  fault  of  sentiment  I saw  reversed,  but  equally 
in  the  extreme,  in  another  example,  — a beautiful 
miniature.*  The  Virgin  seated  on  the  side  of  her  bed 
sinks  back  alarmed,  almost  fainting ; the  angel  in  a 
robe  of  crimson,  with  a white  tunic,  stands  before  her, 
half  turning  away  and  grasping  his  sceptre  in  his  hand, 
with  a proud  commanding  air,  like  a magnificent  surly 
god,  — a Jupiter  who  had  received  a repulse. 

I pass  over  other  instances  conceived  in  a taste  even 
more  blamable,  — Gabriels  like  smirking,  winged  lord 

* Chants  Royales,  Paris  Bibl.  Nat.,  MS.  No.  6989. 


126  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


chamberlains  ; and  Virgins,  half  prim,  half  voluptuous, 
— the  sanctity  and  high  solemnity  of  the  event  utterly 
lost.  Let  this  suffice  for  the  present : I may  now  leave 
the  reader  to  his  own  feeling  and  discrimination. 


St.  Raphael. 

hat.  Sanctus  Raphael.  Ital.  San  Raflfaello.  Fr.  Saint  Raphael. 

Ger.  Der  Heilige  Rafael. 

“ I am  Raphael,  one  of  the  Seven  Holy  Angels  which  present 
the  prayers  of  the  Saints,  and  which  go  in  and  out  before  the 
glory  of  the  Holy  One.”  — Tobit  xii.  15. 

I HAVE  already  alluded  to  the  established  belief,  that 
every  individual  man,  nay,  every  created  being,  hath  a 
guardian  angel  deputed  to  watch  over  him  : — Woe 
unto  us,  if,  by  our  negligence  or  our  self-will,  we  offend 
him  on  whose  vigilance  we  depend  for  help  and  sal- 
vation ! But  the  prince  of  guardian  spirits,  the  guar- 
dian angel  of  all  humanity,  is  Raphael ; and  in  this 
character,  according  to  the  early  Christians,  he  ap- 
peared to  the  shepherds  by  night  <<  with  good  tidings 
of  great  joy,  which  shall  be  for  all  people. It  is,  how- 
ever, from  the  beautiful  Hebrew  romance  of  Tobit  that 
his  attributes  are  gathered : he  is  the  protector  of  the 
young  and  innocent,  and  he  watches  over  the  pilgrim 
and  the  wayfarer.  The  character  imputed  to  him  in 
the  Jewish  traditions  has  been  retained  and  amplified 
by  Milton  ; Raphael  is  the  angel  sent  by  God  to  warn 
Adam : — 

“ The  affable  archangel 
Raphael ; the  sociable  spirit  that  deigned 
To  travel  with  Tobias,  and  secured 
His  marriage  with  the  seven  times  wedded  maid.” 

And  the  character  of  the  angel  is  preserved  through- 
out ; his  sympathy  with  the  human  race,  his  benignity, 
his  eloquence,  his  mild  and  social  converse.  So  when 
Adam  blesses  him  : — 


ARCHANGELS. 


121 


“ Since  to  part, 

Go,  heavenly  guest,  ethereal  messenger, 

Sent  from  whose  sovereign  goodness  I adore  ! 

Gentle  to  me  and  affable  hath  been 
Thy  condescension,  and  shall  be  honored  ever 
With  grateful  memory.  Thou  to  mankind 
Be  good  and  friendly  still,  and  oft  return  ! ” 

This  character  of  benignity  is  stamped  on  all  the  best 
representations  of  Raphael,  which,  however,  are  not 
common:  they  occur  principally  in  the  chapels  dedi- 
cated to  the  holy  guardian  angels ; but  there  are  also 
churches  and  chapels  dedicated  to  him  singly. 

The  devotional  figures  of  Raphael  exhibit  him  in 
the  dress  of  a pilgrim  or  traveller,  his  habit  fit  for 
speed  succinct,”  sandals  on  his  feet,  his  hair  bound  with 
a fillet  or  diadem,  the  staff  in  his  hand,  and  sometimes 
a bottle  of  water  or  a wallet  (panetiere)  slung  to  his 
belt.  In  the  figure  by  Murillo,  one  of  the  most  beauti- 
ful pictures  in  the  Leuchtenberg  Gallery,  Raphael  is 
the  guardian  and  guide  of  the  votary  who  appears 
below,  — a bishop  who  probably  bore  the  same  name.^ 

Sometimes,  as  guardian  spirit,  he  has  a sword  : the 
most  beautiful  example  I could  cite  of  this  treatment  is 
the  figure  in  the  Breviary  of  Anne  of  Bretagne  (a.  d. 
1500) ; he  wears  a pale-green  tunic  bordered  with  gold, 
and  wings  of  a deep  rose  color ; he  has  a casket  or 
wallet  slung  over  his  shoulder  by  a golden  belt ; in 
one  hand  he  holds  a sword,  and  the  other  is  raised  with 
a warning  gesture  ; his  countenance,  beautiful  and  be- 
nign as  possible,  yet  says,  Take  heed.”  More  com- 
monly, however,  he  carries  a small  casket,  box,  or  vase, 
supposed  to  contain  the  fishy  charm”  against  the 
evil  spirits.  (Tobit  vi.  6,  7.) 

Raphael,  in  his  character  of  guardian  angel,  is  gen- 
erally represented  as  leading  the  youthful  Tobias. 
When,  in  order  to  mark  the  difference  between  the 
celestial  and  the  mortal  being,  Tobit  is  figured  so  small 

* Mr.  Stirling  entitles  this  picture  “ an  angel  appearing  to  a 
Bishop  at  his  prayers.” 


128  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


as  to  look  like  a child,  and  when  the  angel  wears  his 
spirit-wings,  and  is  not  disguised,  the  whole  subject 
becomes  idealized : it  is  no  ’longer  an  historical  action, 
but  a devotional  allegory;  and  Tobias  with  his  fish 
represents  the  Christian,  the  believer,  guarded  and 
guided  through  his  life-pilgrimage  by  the  angelic 
monitor  and  minister  of  divine  mercy. 

There  is  a small  side  chapel  in  the  church  of  Saint 
Euphemia,  at  Yerona,  dedicated  to  St.  Raphael.  The 
walls  are  painted  with  frescos  from  the  story  of  Tobit ; 
•and  over  the  altar  is  that  masterpiece  of  Carotto,  rep- 
resenting the  three  archangels  as  three  graceful  spirit- 
like figures  without  wings.  The  altar  being  dedicated 
to  Raphael,  he  is  here  the  principal  figure ; he  alone 
has  the  glory  encircling  his  head,  and  takes  precedence 
of  the  others  ; he  stands  in  the  centre  leading  Tobias, 
and  looking  down  on  him  with  an  air  of  such  saintly 
and  benign  protection,  that  one  feels  inclined  to  say  or 
sing  in  the  words  of  the  litany,  “ Sancte  Raphael,  ado- 
lescentium  pudicitiae  defensor,  ora  pro  nobis  ! Even 
more  divine  is  the  St.  Michael  who  stands  on  the  right, 
with  one  hand  gathering  up  the  folds  of  his  crimson 
robe,  the  other  leaning  on  his  great  two-handed  sword ; 
but  such  a head,  such  a countenance  looking  out  upon 
us  — so  earnest,  powerful,  and  serious  ! — we  recognize 
the  Lord  of  Souls,  the  Angel  of  Judgment.  To  the 
left  of  Raphael  stands  Gabriel,  the  Angel  of  Redemp- 
tion ; he  holds  the  lily,  and  looks  up  to  heaven  adoring : 
this  is  the  least  expressive  of  the  three  heads,  but  still 
beautiful ; and,  on  the  whole,  the  picture  left  a stronger 
impression  on  my  mind  than  any  I had  seen  at  Venice, 
the  glorious  Assumption  excepted.  The  coloring  in 
its  glowing  depth  is  like  that  of  Giorgione.  Vasari 
tells  us,  that  this  picture,  painted  when  Carotto  was 
young  (about  a.  d.  1495),  was  criticised  because  the 
limbs  of  the  angels  were  too  slender ; to  which  Carotto, 
famous  for  his  repartees,  replied,  Then  they  will  fly 
the  better ! ” The  drawing,  however,  it  must  be  con- 
ceded, is  not  the  best  part  of  the  picture. 


ARCHANGELS. 


129 


The  earliest  picture  of  Titian  which  remains  to  us 
is  a St.  Kaphael  leading  ^Tobias ; * beautiful,  but  not 
equal,  certainly,  to  that  of  Carotto.  Raphael,  as  we 
might  naturally  suppose,  painted  his  guardian  angel 
and  patron  saint  con  amove : f we  have  by  him  two  St. 
Raphaels ; the  first,  a little  figure  executed  when  he 
was  a boy  in  the  studio  of  his  master  Perugino,  is  now 
on  one  side  of  an  altar-piece  in  the  Certosa  at  Pavia. 
Later  in  life,  and  in  one  of  his  finest  works,  he  has  in- 
troduced his  patron  saint  with  infinite  beauty  of  feeling : 
in  the  Madonna  della  Pesce,!  the  Virgin  sits  upon  her 
throne,  with  the  Infant  Christ  in  her  arms  ; the  angel 
Raphael  presents  Tobias,  who  is  not  here  a youth,  but 
a child ; while  the  Infant  Christ  turns  away  from  the 
wise,  bearded  old  doctor,  who  is  intently  studying  his 
great  book,  to  welcome  the  angel  and  his  charge.  The 
head  of  the  angel,  looking  up  in  the  face  of  the  Ma- 
donna, is  in  truth  sublime : it  would  be  impossible  to 
determine  whether  it  belongs  to  a masculine  or  a femi- 
nine being ; but  none  could  doubt  that  it  is  a divine 
being,  filled  with  fervent,  enthusiastic,  adoring  love. 
The  fish  in  the  hand  of  Tobias  has  given  its  name  to 
the  picture  ; and  I may  as  well  observe  that  in  the  de- 
votional pictures,  where  the  fish  is  merely  an  attribute, 
expressing  Christian  baptism,  it  is  usually  very  small : 
in  the  story  it  is  a sort  of  monster,  which  sprang  out 
of  the  river  and  would  have  devoured  him. 

All  the  subjects  in  which  the  Archangel  Raphael  is 
an  actor  belong  to  the  history  of  Tobit.  The  scenes 
of  this  beautiful  Scriptural  legend  — I must  call  it  so  — 
have  been  popular  subjects  of  Art,  particularly  in  the 
later  schools,  and  have  been  admirably  treated  by  some 
of  the  best  Dutch  and  Flemish  painters : the  combi- 
nation of  the  picturesque  and  poetical  with  the  homely 
and  domestic  recommended  it  particularly  to  Rem- 
brandt and  his  school.  Tobias  dragging  the  fish 

* In  the  church  of  S.  Marziale,  Venice. 

t Passavant’s  Rafael,  vol.  ii.  p.  6.  150. 

J Madrid  Gallery. 

9 


130 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


ashore,  while  the  angel  stands  by,  is  a fine  picturesque 
landscape  subject  which  has  been  often  repeated.  The 
spirited  little  sketch  by  Salvator,*  in  which  the  figure 
of  the  guardian  angel  is  admirable  for  power  and  ani- 
mated grace ; the  twilight  effect  by  Rembrandt ; t 
another  by  Domenichino ; three  by  Claude ; may  be 
cited  as  examples. 

In  such  pictures,  as  it  has  been  rightly  observed,  the 
angel  ought  not  to  have  wings  ; he  is  disguised  as  the 
friendly  traveller.  The  dog,  which  ought  to  be  omitted 
in  the  devotional  pictures,  is  here  a part  of  the  story, 
and  figures  with  great  propriety. 

Rembrandt  painted  the  parting  of  Tobias  and  his 
parents  four  times ; Tobias  led  by  the  angel,  four 
times : Tobias  healing  his  father,  once ; the  departure 
of  the  angel,  twice.  Of  this  last  subject,  the  picture 
in  the  Louvre  may  be  pronounced  one  of  his  finest ; — 
miraculous  for  true  and  spirited  expression,  and  for  the 
action  of  the  soaring  angel,  who  parts  the  clouds  and 
strikes  through  the  air  like  a strong  swimmer  through 
the  waves  of  the  sea. 

The  story  of  Tobit,  as  a series  of  subjects,  has  been 
very  frequently  represented,  always  in  the  genre  and 
picturesque  style  of  the  later  schools.  I shall  have  to 
return  to  it  hereafter ; here  I have  merely  alluded  to 
the  devotional  treatment,  in  order  to  direct  attention  to 
the  proper  character  of  the  Archangel  Raphael. 

And  thus  we  have  shown 

“ how  Holy  Church 

Doth  represent  with  human  countenance 
Gabriel  and  Michael,  and  him  who  made 
Tobias  whole,”  — Dante,  Far.  c.  iv. 


* Louvre,  No.  358. 


t In  our  National  Gallery. 


ARCHANGELS, 


131 


ADDITIONAL  NOTES  ON  ANGELS. 


1.  In  a picture  by  Gentile  da  Fabriano  (JBerlin  Oallery^  1130), 
the  Virgin  and  Child  are  enthroned,  and  on  each  side  of  the  throne 
is  a tree,  on  the  branches  of  which  are  little  red  Seraphim  winged 
and  perched  like  birds,  singing  and  making  music.  I remember 
also  a little  Dutch  jjrint  of  a Riposo  (v.  “Legends  of  the  Ma- 
donna”), in  which  five  little  angels  are  perched  on  the  trees 
above,  singing  and  playing  for  the  solace  of  the  divine  Infant. 
Thus  we  have  Dante’s  idea  of  the  Uccelli  di  Dio  reproduced  in  a 
more  familiar  form. 

2.  In  the  Convent  of  Sant- Angelo  at  Bologna,  Camillo  Procacci- 
no  painted  the  “ Acts  of  the  Holy  Angels  ” in  the  following  order: 
1.  The  Fall  of  the  Dragon.  2.  The  Angels  drive  Adam  and  Eve 
from  Paradise.  3.  The  three  Angels  visit  Abraham.  4.  The  An- 
gel stays  the  arm  of  Abraham.  5.  The  Angel  wrestles  with 
Jacob.  6.  The  Angels  visit  Jacob  in  a Dream.  7.  The  Angel 
delivers  the  three  Children  in  the  burning  fiery  Furnace.  8.  The 
Angel  slays  the  Host  of  Sennacherib.  9.  The  Angel  protects 
Tobit.  10.  The  Punishment  of  Heliodorus.  11.  The  Annuncia- 
tion to  Mary.  It  will  be  remarked  that  all  these  subjects  are 
strictly  Scriptural. 


THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS. 


“ Matthew  wrote  for  the  Hebrews  5 Mark,  for  the  Italians  ; Luke, 
for  the  Greeks  j for  all,  the  great  herald  John.”  — Gregory  Na^ 
zianzen, 

INCE  on  the  Pour  Evangelists,  as  the  wit- 
nesses and  interpreters  of  a revealed  religion, 
the  whole  Christian  Church  may  be  said  to 
rest  as  upon  four  majestic  pillars,  we  cannot 
be  surprised  that  representations  of  them  should  abound, 
and  that  their  effigies  should  have  been  introduced  into 
Christian  places  of  worship  from  very  early  times. 
Generally,  we  find  them  represented  together,  grouped, 
or  in  a series ; sometimes  in  their  collective  character, 
as  the  Four  Wit7iesses ; sometimes  in  their  individual 
character,  each  as  an  inspired  teacher,  or  beneficent 
patron.  As  no  authentic  resemblances  of  these  sacred 
personages  have  ever  been  known  or  even  supposed  to 
exist,  such  representations  have  always  been  either 
symbolical  or  ideal.  In  the  symbol,  the  aim  was  to 
embody,  under  some  emblematical  image,  the  spiritual 
mission ; in  the  ideal  portrait,  the  artist,  left  to  his  own 
conception,  borrowed  from  Scripture  some  leading  trait 
(when  Scripture  afforded  any  authority  for  such),  and 
adding,  with  what  success  his  skill  could  attain,  all  that 
his  imagination  could  conceive,  as  expressive  of  dig- 
nity and  persuasive  eloquence,  — the  look  ‘‘commercing 
'with  the  skies,”  the  commanding  form,  the  reverend 


THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS. 


133 


face,  the  ample  draperies,  — he  put  the  book  or  the  pen 
into  his  hand,  and  thus  the  writer  and  the  teacher  of 
the  truth  was  placed  before  us. 

The  earliest  type  under  which  the  Four  Evangelists 
are  figured  is  an  emblem  of  the  simplest  kind : four 
scrolls  placed  in  the  four  angles  of  a Greek  cross,  or 
four  books  (the  Gospels),  represented  allegorically  those 
who  wrote  or  promulgated  them.  The  second  type 
chosen  was  more  poetical,  — the  four  rivers  which  had 
their  source  in  Paradise : representations  of  this  kind, 
in  which  the  Saviour,  figured  as  a lamb  holding  the 
cross,  or  in  his  human  form,  with  a lamb  near  him, 
stands  on  an  eminence,  from  which  gush  four  rivers  or 
fountains,  are  to  be  met  with  in  the  catacombs,  on  an- 
cient sarcophagi  preserved  among  the  Christian  relics 
in  the  Vatican,  and  in  several  old  churches  constructed 
between  the  second  and  the  fifth  century. 

At  what  period  the  four  mysterious  creatures  in  the 
vision  of  Ezekiel  (ch.  i.  5)  were  first  adopted  as  sig- 
nificant symbols  of  the  Four  Evangelists  does  not 
seem  clear.  The  Jewish  doctors  interpreted  them  as 
figuring  the  Four  Archangels,  — Michael,  Raphael, 
Gabriel,  Uriel ; and  afterwards  applied  them  as  em- 
blems of  the  Four  Great  Prophets,  — Isaiah,  Jeremiah, 
Ezekiel,  and  Daniel.  By  the  early  Oriental  Christians, 
who  typified  the  whole  of  the  Old  Testament,  the  trans- 
fer of  the  emblem  to  the  Four  Evangelists  seems  ob- 
vious and  easy ; we  find  it  alluded  to  as  early  as  the 
second  century.  The  four  Beasts  of  corresponding 
form  in  the  Revelation  (chap.  iv.  7),  which  stood  round 
the  throne  of  the  Lamb,  were  likewise  thus  interpreted ; 
but  it  was  not  till  the  fifth  century  that  we  find  these 
symbols  assuming  a visible  form,  and  introduced  into 
works  of  art.  In  the  seventh  century  they  had  become 
almost  universal,  as  distinctive  attributes. 

The  general  application  of  the  J’our  Creatures  to  the 
Four  Evangelists  is  of  much  earlier  date  than  the  sepa- 
rate and  individual  application  of  each  symbol,  which 
has  varied  at  different  times ; that  propounded  by  St. 


1 34  SA  CRED  AND  LEGEND AR  Y AR T, 

Jerome,  in  his  commentary  on  Ezekiel,  has  since  his  time 
prevailed  universally.  Thus,  then,  1 . To  St.  Matthew 
was  given  the  Cherub,  or  human  semblance,  because  he 
begins  his  Gospel  with  the  human  generation  of  Christ ; 
or,  according  to  others,  because  in  his  Gospel  the  human 
nature  of  the  Saviour  is  more  insisted  on  than  the 
divine.  In  the  most  ancient  mosaics,  the  type  is  hul 
man,  not  angelic,  for  the  head  is  that  of  a man  with  a 
beard.  2.  St.  Mark  has  the  Lion,  because  he  has  set 
forth  the  royal  dignity  of  Christ ; or,  according  to 
others,  because  he  begins  with  the  mission  of  the  Bap- 
tist — the  voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness**  — which 
is  figured  by  the  lion  : or  according  to  a third  interpre- 
tation, the  lion  was  allotted  to  St.  Mark  because  there 
was,  in  the  middle  ages,  a popular  belief  that  the  young 
of  the  lion  was  born  dead,  and  after  three  days  was 
awakened  to  vitality  by  the  breath  of  its  sire;  some 
authors,  however,  represent  the  lion  as  vivifying  his 
young  not  by  his  breath,  but  by  his  roar.  In  either 
case  the  application  is  the  same ; the  revival  of  the 
young  lion  was  considered  as  symbolical  of  the  resur- 
rection, and  Mark  was  commonly  called  the  ‘‘historian 
of  the  resurrection.^'  Another  commentator  observes 
that  Mark  begins  his  Gospel  with  “roaring";  “the 
voice  of  one  crying  in  the  wilderness";  and  ends  it 
fearfully  with  a curse,  — “ He  that  believeth  not  shall 
be  damned";  and  that,  therefore,  his  appropriate  attri- 
bute is  the  most  terrible  of  beasts,  the  lion.*  3.  Luke 
has  the  Ox,  because  he  has  dwelt  on  the  priesthood  of 
Christ,  the  ox  being  the  emblem  of  sacrifice.  4.  John 
has  the  Eagle,  which  is  the  symbol  of  the  highest  in- 
spiration, because  he  soared  upwards  to  the  contempla- 
tion of  the  divine  nature  of  the  Saviour. 

But  the  order  in  which,-  in  theological  Art,  these 
symbols  are  placed,  is  not  the  same  as  the  order  of  the 
Gospels  according  to  the  canon.  Bupertus  considers 
the  Four  Beasts  as  typical  of  the  Incarnation,  the  Pas- 
sion, the  Resurrection,  and  the  Ascension;  an  idea 

* Rupertus,  Commentar.  in  Apocal.,  c.  4.  Mark  xvi.  16. 


THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS. 


135 


previously  dwelt  upon  by  Durandus,  who  adds,  that 
the  man  and  the  lion  are  placed  on  the  right,  because 
the  incarnation  and  the  resurrection  are  the  joy  of  the 
whole  earth ; whilst  the  ox  is  on  the  left,  because 
Christ's  sacrifice  was  a trouble  to  the  apostles  ; and  the 
eagle  is  above  the  ox,  as  suggestive  of  our  Lord's  up- 
ward flight  into  heaven.  According  to  others,  the 
proper  order  in  the  ascending  scale  is  thus : At  the 
lowest  point  on  the  left,  the  ox ; to  the  right,  the  lion ; 
above  the  ox,  the  eagle  ; and  above  all,  the  angel.  So 
in  Raphael's  Vision  of  Ezekiel,  the  angel  gazes  into 
the  face  of  the  Holy  One,  the  others  form  his  throne. 

I have  dwelt  on  these  fanciful  interpretations  and 
disquisitions,  because  the  symbols  of  the  Evangelists 
meet  us  at  every  turn ; in  the  mosaics  of  the  old  Italian 
churches,  in  the  decorative  sculpture  of  our  old  cathe- 
drals, in  the  Gothic  stained  glass,  in  the  ancient  pictures 
and  miniatures,  on  the  carved  and  chased  covers  of 
old  books ; everywhere,  in  short,  where  enters  the  idea 
of  their  divine  mission,  — and  where  is  it  not  ? The 
profound  thought,  as  well  as  the  vivid  imagination,  ex- 
ercised in  some  of  these  early  works  of  art,  is  beginning 
to  be  appreciated ; and  we  should  lose  the  half  of  what 
is  poetical  and  significant  and  venerable  in  these  ap- 
parently arbitrary  and  fanciful  symbols,  if  we  merely 
seized  the  general  intention,  and  not  the  relative  and 
appropriate  meaning  of  each. 

I will  only  add  (for  I have  restricted  myself  to  the 
consideration  of  the  mysteries  of  faith  only  so  far  as 
they  are  carried  into  the  forms  of  Art),  that  these  sym- 
bols of  the  Four  Evangelists  were  in  their  combination 
held  to  be  symbolical  of  the  Redeemer,  in  the  fourfold 
character  then  universally  assigned  to  him,  as  man,  as 
king,  as  high-priest,  and  as  God;  according  to  this 
Latin  verse : — 

“ Quatuor  haec  Dominum  signant  animalia  Christum, 

Est  Homo  nascendo,  vitulus(\\iQ  sacer  moriendo, 

Et  Leo  surgendo,  coelos  aquilaq}iQ  petendo  ; 

Nec  minus  hos  scribas  animalia  et  ipsa  figurant.” 


136  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

This  would  again  alter  the  received  order  of  the 
symbols,  and  place  the  angelic  or  human  semblance 
lower  than  the  rest:  but  I have  never  seen  them  so 
placed,  at  least  I can  recollect  no  instance. 

A Greek  mosaic,  existing  in  the  Convent  of  Vato- 
pedi,  on  Mount  Athos,  exhibits  an  attempt  to  reduce 
to  form  the  wild  and  sublime  imagery  of  the  prophet 
Ezekiel:  the  Evangelists,  or  rather  the  Gospels,  are 
represented  as  the  tetramorph,  or  four-faced  creature, 
with  wings  full  of  eyes,  and  borne  on  wheels  of  living 
flame. 

The  Tetramorph,  i.  e.  the  union  of  the  four  attri- 
butes of  the  Evangelists,  in  one  figure,  is  in  Greek  Art 
always  angelic  or  winged,  — a mysterious  thing.  The 
Tetramorph  in  Western  Art  has  in  some  instances  be- 
come monstrous,  instead  of  mystic  and  poetical.  In  a 
miniature  of  the  Hortus  Deliciarum,  we  find  the  new 
Law,  or  Christianity,  represented  as  a woman  crowned 
and  seated  on  an  animal  which,  with  the  body  of  a 
horse,  has  the  four  heads  of  the  mystic  creatures ; and 
of  the  four  feet,  one  is  human ; one  hoofed,  for  the  ox ; 
one  clawed  like  an  eagle’s  ; and  one  like  a lion’s  : un- 
derneath is  inscribed  Animal  Ecclesice.  In  some  other 
examples,  the  Church,  or  the  new  Law,  is  seated  in  a 
triumphal  car  drawn  by  the  eagle,  the  lion,  and  the  ox, 
while  the  angel  holds  the  reins  and  drives  as  charioteer. 

The  early  images  of  the  Evangelical  symbol  are 
uniformly  represented  with  wings,  for  the  same  reason 
that  wings  were  given  to  the  angels,  — they  were  an- 
gels, i.  e.  bringers  of  good  tidings  : for  instance,  in  the 
earliest  example  to  which  I can  refer,  a rude  fragment 
of  a bas-relief  in  terra-cotta,  found  in  the  catacombs, 
which  represents  a lamb  with  a glory  holding  a cross ; 
on  the  right,  an  angel  in  a sacerdotal  garment  (St. 
Matthew),  on  the  left  the  winged  ox  (St.  Luke),  each 
holding  a book. 

In  the  most  ancient  Christian  churches  we  find  these 
symbols  perpetually  recurring,  generally  in  or  over  the 
recess  at  the  east  end  (the  apsis,  or  tribune),  where 


THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS, 


^11 


stands  the  altar.  And  as  the  image  of  Christ,  as  the 
Redeemer,  either  under  the  semblance  of  the  lamb,  or 
in  his  human  likeness,  as  a grand,  calm,  solemn  figure 
enthroned,  and  in  the  act  of  benediction,  forms  invaria- 
bly the  principal  object ; — almost  as  invariably  the 
Evangelists  are  either  at  the  four  corners,  or  ranged  in 
a line  above  or  below,  or  they  are  over  the  arch  in  front 
of  the  tribune.  Sometimes  they  are  the  heads  only  of 
the  mystic  creatures,  on  an  azure  ground,  studded  with 
stars,  floating  as  in  a firmament : or  the  half  figure 
ends  in  a leafy  scroll,  like  the  genii  in  an  arabesque; 
or  the  creature  is  given  at  full  length  and  entire,  with 
four  wings,  holding  the  book,  and  looking  much  like  a 
figure  in  heraldry. 

The  next  step  was  the  combination  of  the  emblem 
with  the  human  form,  i.  e.  the  head  of  the  lion,  ox,  or 
eagle  set  upon  the  figure  of  a man.  There  is  a figure 
of  St.  John  standing  with  the  head  of  an  eagle,  holding 
the  Gospel.  There  is  another  rudely  engraved  in  Miin- 
ter’s  work,  with  the  eagle’s  head,  wings  upon  the  shoul- 
ders, and  a scroll.  I remember  another  of  St.  John 
seated,  writing,  with  the  head  and  clawed  feet  of  an 
eagle,  and  the  body  and  hands  of  a man.  Such  figures 
as  a series  I have  seen  in  ornaments,  and  frequently  in 
illuminated  MSS.,  but  seldom  in  churches,  and  never 
of  a large  size.  A very  striking  and  comparatively 
modern  example  of  this  peculiar  treatment  occurs  in 
a bas-relief  on  the  door  of  the  College  of  St.  Stephen 
and  St.  Lawrence,  at  Castiglione,  in  which  the  Eour 
Evangelists  are  represented  as  half-length  human  fig- 
ures, amply  draped  and  holding  the  Gospels,  each  with 
the  emblematic  head  and  large  outspread  wings.  The 
bronze  bas-reliefs  of  the  Evangelists  on  each  side  of 
the  choir  of  St.  Antonio,  at  Padua,  are  similar  in  form, 
and  very  fine,  both  in  conception  and  workmanship. 

In  a series  of  full-length  figures  from  the  first  com- 
partment of  the  Life  of  Christ  by  Angelico  da  Eiesole 
(FI.  Acad.),  the  figures  stand  round  a mystic  circle, 
alternately  with  the  prophets.  We  must  remember, 


138  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

that  however  monstrous  and  grotesque  such  figures 
may  appear  to  the  eye,  they  are  not  more  unnatural 
than  the  angelic  representations  with  which  we  are  so 
familiar  that  we  see  in  them  beauty  only,  — not  consid- 
ering that  men  with  the  wings  of  birds  are  as  merely 
emblematical  and  impossible  as  men  with  animal  heads. 
It  is  interesting,  and  leads  the  mind  to  many  specula- 
tions, to  remark  that  the  Babylonish  captivity  must 
have  familiarized  the  Israelites  with  the  combination 
of  the  human  and  animal  attributes  in  the  same  figure. 
The  gigantic  bas-reliefs  from  Nineveh  show  us  winged 
bulls  with  human  heads,  and  the  human  form  with  the 
eaglets  head  and  wings. 

In  a few  later  examples  the  only  symbolical  attribute 
retained  is  a pair  of  wings.  There  is  a curious  set  of 
Evangelists,  of  a minute  size,  and  exquisitely  engraved 
by  Hans  Beham  : they  are  habited  in  the  old  German 
fashion ; each  has  his  book,  his  emblem,  and  in  addi- 
tion the  expressive  wings. 

These  animal-symbols,  whether  alone  or  in  combina- 
tion with  the  human  forms^  were  perfectly  intelligible 
to  the  people,  sanctified  in  their  eyes  by  tradition,  by 
custom,  and  by  the  most  solemn  associations.  All 
direct  imitation  of  nature  was,  by  the  best  painters, 
carefully  avoided.  In  this  respect  how  fine  is  KaphaeFs 
Vision  of  Ezekiel ! how  sublime  and  how  true  in  feel- 
ing and  conception  ! where  the  Messiah  comes  floating 
along,  upborne  by  the  Eour  Creatures,  — mysterious, 
spiritual,  wonderful  beings,  animals  in  form,  but  in  all 
else  unearthly,  and  the  winged  ox  not  less  divine  than 
the  winged  angel ! * Whereas  in  the  later  times,  when 
the  artist  piqued  himself  upon  the  imitation  of  nature, 
the  mystic  and  venerable  significance  was  wholly  lost. 
As  a striking  instance  of  this  mistaken  style  of  treat- 

* There  is  a small  and  beautiful  picture  by  Giulio  Romano  in 
the  Belvedere  at  Vienna,  representing  the  emblems  of  the  Four 
Evangelists  grouped  in  a picturesque  manner,  which  was  proba- 
bly suggested  by  Raphael’s  celebrated  picture,  which  is  in  the 
Pitti  palace  at  Florence. 


THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS, 


139 


merit,  we  may  turn  to  the  famous  group  of  the  Tour 
Evangelists  by  Rubens,*  grand,  colossal,  standing,  or 
rather  moving  figures,  each  with  his  emblem,  if  em- 
blems they  can  be  called  which  are  almost  as  full  of 
reality  as  nature  itself : — the  ox  so  like  life  we  expect 
him  to  bellow  at  us ; the  magnificent  lion  flourishing 
his  tail,  and  looking  at  St.  Mark  as  if  about  to  roar  at 
him  ! — and  herein  lies  the  mistake  of  the  great  painter, 
that,  for  the  religious  and  mysterious  emblem,  he  has 
substituted  the  creatures  themselves  : this  being  one  of 
the  instances,  not  unfrequent  in  Art,  in  which  the  literal 
truth  becomes  a manifest  falsehood. 

In  ecclesiastical  decoration  the  Four  Evangelists  are 
sometimes  grouped  significantly  with  the  Four  Greater 
Prophets ; thus  representing  the  connection  between 
the  new  and  the  old  Law.  I met  with  a curious  in- 
stance in  the  Cathedral  of  Chartres.  The  five  great 
windows  over  the  south  door  may  be  said  to  contain  a 
succinct  system  of  theology,  according  to  the  belief  of 
the  thirteenth  century : here  the  Virgin,  i.  e.  the  Church 
or  Religion,  occupies  the  central  window  ; on  one  side 
is  Jeremiah,  carrying  on  his  shoulders  St.  Luke,  and 
Isaiah  carrying  St.  Matthew ; on  the  other  side,  Eze- 
kiel bears  St.  John,  and  Daniel  St.  Mark ; thus  repre- 
senting the  New  Testament  resting  on  the  Old. 

In  ecclesiastical  decoration,  and  particularly  in  the 
stained  glass,  they  are  often  found  in  combination  with 
the  Four  Doctors,  the  Evangelists  being  considered  as 
witnesses,  the  Doctors  as  interpreters,  of  the  truth  : or 
as  a series  with  the  Four  Greater  Prophets,  the  Four 
Sibyls,  and  the  Four  Doctors  of  the  Church,  the  Evan- 
gelists taking  the  third  place. 

If,  as  late  as  the  sixteenth  century,  we  find  the  Evan- 
gelists still  expressed  by  the  mystic  emblems  (as  in  the 
fine  bronzes  in  the  choir  of  Sant  Antonio  at  Padua),  as 
early  as  the  sixth  we  have  in  the  Greek  MSS.  and  mo- 
saics the  Evangelists  as  venerable  men,  and  promulga- 
tors of  a revelation ; as  in  San  Vitale  at  Ravenna  (a.  d. 

* Grosvenor  Gallery. 


140  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

547)  : on  each  side  of  the  choir,  nearest  the  altar,  we 
find  the  prophets  Isaiah  and  Jeremiah ; then  follow  the 
Evangelists,  two  on  each  side,  all  alike,  all  classically 
draped  in  white  tunics,  each  holding  an  open  book,  on 
which  is  inscribed  Secundum  Marcum,^^  Secundum 
Johannem,^^  &c. ; and  above  each  the  animal  symbol 
or  attribute,  large,  full  length,  and  grandly  designed. 
In  modern  ecclesiastical  decoration,  the  usual  and  ap- 
propriate situation  of  the  Four  Evangelists  is  immedi- 
ately under  the  dome,  nearest  to  the  Saviour,  after  the 
angels,  or  after  the  prophets,  where  either  are  intro- 
duced. I will  mention  here  a few  examples  celebrated 
in  the  history  of  Art ; premising  that  among  the  works 
of  Leonardo,  of  Michael  Angelo,  and  Raphael,  we  find 
no  representations  of  the  Four  Evangelists  ; which  is 
singular,  considering  that  such  figures  entered  necessar 
rily  into  every  scheme  of  theological  decorative  art. 

By  Cimabue  (a.  d.  1270),  larger  than  life,  on  the 
vault  of  the  choir  in  San  Francesco  d’  Assisi. 

By  Giotto  (a.  d.  1320),  in  the  choir  of  Sant’ Apolli- 
nare,  at  Ravenna  : seated,  and  each  accompanied  by 
one  of  the  doctors  of  the  church. 

By  Angelico  (a.  d.  1390),  round  the  dome  of  the 
chapel  of  San  Niccolo,  in  the  Vatican ; all  seated, 
each  with  his  emblem. 

By  Masaccio  (a.  d.  1420),  round  the  dome  of  the 
chapel  of  the  Passion  in  San  Clemente,  at  Rome ; ad- 
mirable for  simple  grandeur. 

By  Perugino  (a.  d.  1490),  on  the  dome  of  the  chapel 
del  Cambio,  at  Perugia ; the  heads  admirable. 

By  Correggio  (a.  d.  1520),  immediately  under  the 
cupola  of  San  Giovanni,  in  four  lunettes,  magnificent 
figures  : and  again  in  the  Cathedral  of  Parma,  each 
seated  in  glory,  with  one  of  the  doctors  of  the  Church. 

By  Domenichino,  two  sets  (a.  d.  1620).  Those  in 
the  church  of  St.  Andrea  della  Valle,  at  Rome,  are 
considered  his  finest  works,  and  celebrated  in  the  his- 
tory of  art : they  are  grand  figures.  The  emblematical 
animals  are  here  combined  with  the  personages  in  a 


THE  FOUR  EVANGELISTS. 


141 

manner  the  most  studied  and  pieturesque ; and  the 
angels  which  sport  around  them,  playing  with  the 
mane  of  St.  Markus  lion,  or  the  pallet  and  pencils 
of  St.  Luke,  are  like  beautiful  Amoretti,'^  — but  we 
hardly  think  of  angels.  The  series  at  Grotta-Terrata 
is  inferior. 

The  Four  Evangelists  by  Valentin  (a.  b.  1632),  in 
the  Louvre,  had  once  great  celebrity,  and  have  been 
often  engraved;  they  appear  to  me  signal  examples 
of  all  that  should  be  avoided  in  character  and  senti- 
ment. St.  Matthew,  for  example,  is  an  old  beggar ; 
the  model  for  the  attendant  angel  is  a little  French 
gamin,  a qui  Valentin  a commande  de  sortir  un  bras 
de  la  manche  de  sa  chemise,  que  de  Tautre  main  il 
soutieut  gauchement.^* 

Le  Sueur  (a.  d.  1655)  has  represented  the  Four 
Evangelists  seated  at  a table  writing  ; the  Holy  Ghost 
descends  upon  them  in  the  form  of  a dove. 

Towards  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century,  we  find 
sets  of  the  Evangelists  in  which  the  emblems  are  alto- 
gether omitted,  and  the  personages  distinguished  by 
their  situation,  or  by  their  names  inscribed  under  or 
over  them  : but  we  miss  those  antique  Scriptural  at- 
tributes which  placed  them  before  us  as  beings  fore- 
shadowed in  the  prophecies  uttered  of  old ; they  have 
become  mere  men. 

This  must  suffice  for  the  Evangelists  considered  as  a 
series  and  in  their  collective  character ; but  it  will  be 
interesting  to  pause  for  a moment,  and  take  a rapid 
retrospective  view  of  the  progress,  from  first  to  last,  in 
the  expression  of  an  idea  through  form. 

First,  we  have  the  mere  Jact ; the  four  scrolls,  or 
the  four  books. 

Next,  the  idea ; the  four  rivers  of  salvation  flowing 
from  on  high,  to  fertilize  the  whole  earth. 

Thirdly,  the  prophetic  Symbol ; the  winged  cherub 
of  fourfold  aspect. 

Next,  the  Christian  Symbol ; the  four  beasts  in 
the  Apocalypse,  with  or  without  the  angel- wings. 


142  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

Then  the  combination  of  the  emblematical  animal  with 
the  human  form. 

Then  the  human  personages,  each  of  venerable  or 
inspired  aspect,  as  becomes  the  teacher  and  witness  j 
and  each  attended  by  the  Scriptural  emblem  — no 
longer  an  emblem,  but  an  attribute  — marking  his  in- 
dividual vocation  and  character. 

And,  lastly,  the  emblem  and  attribute  both  dis- 
carded, we  have  the  human  being  only,  holding  his 
Gospel,  i.  e.  his  version  of  the  doctrine  of  Christ. 


St.  Matthew. 

Lat.  S.  Mattheus.  Ital.  San  Matteo.  Fr.  Saint  Matthieu- 
Ger.  St.  Matthaus.  Sept.  21. 

St.  Matthew  among  the  Apostles  takes  the  seventh 
or  eighth  place,  but  as  an  Evangelist  he  always  stands 
first,  because  his  Gospel  was  the  earliest  written.  Very 
little  is  certainly  known  concerning  him,  his  name  oc- 
curring but  once  in  his  own  Gospel,  and  in  the  other 
Gospels  only  incidentally  with  reference  to  two  events. 

He  was  a Hebrew  by  birth  ; by  profession  a pub- 
lican, or  tax-gatherer,  in  the  service  of  the  Romans,  — 
an  office  very  lucrative,  but  particularly  odious  in  the 
sight  of  his  countrymen.  His  original  name  was  Levi. 
It  is  recorded  in  few  words,  that  as  he  sat  at  the  receipt 
of  custom  by  the  lake  of  Gennesareth,  Jesus,  in  passing 
by,  saw  him,  and  said  unto  him,  Follow  me,’’  and  he 
left  all  and  followed  him ; and  further,  that  he  made  a 
feast  in  his  house,  at  which  many  publicans  and  sinners 
sat  down  with  the  Lord  and  his  disciples,  to  the  great 
astonishment  and  scandal  of  the  Jews.  So  far  the 
sacred  record  : the  traditional  and  legendary  history 
of  St.  Matthew  is  equally  scanty.  It  is  related  in  the 
Perfetto  Legendarioy  that,  after  the  dispersion  of  the 
apostles,  he  travelled  into  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  preach- 
ing the  Gospel ; and  having  arrived  in  the  capital  of 
Ethiopia,  he  lodged  in  the  house  of  the  eunuch  who 


ST,  MATTHEW, 


143 


had  been  baptized  by  Philip,  and  who  entertained  him 
with  great  honor.  There  were  two  terrible  magicians 
at  that  time  in  Ethiopia,  who  by  their  diabolical  spells 
and  incantations  kept  all  the  people  in  subjection, 
afflicting  them  at  the  same  time  with  strange  and  ter- 
rible diseases;  but  St.  Matthew  overcame  them,  and 
having  baptized  the  people,  they  were  delivered  for- 
ever from  the  malignant  influence  of  these  enchanters. 
And  further,  it  is  related  that  St.  Matthew  raised  the 
son  of  the  King  of  Egypt  from  the  dead,  and  healed 
his  daughter  of  the  leprosy.  The  princess,  whose 
name  was  Iphigenia,  he  placed  at  the  head  of  a com- 
munity of  virgins  dedicated  to  the  service  of  God  : and 
a certain  wicked  heathen  king,  having  threatened  to 
tear  her  from  her  asylum,  was  struck  by  leprosy,  and 
his  palace  destroyed  by  fire.  St.  Matthew  remained 
twenty-three  years  in  Egypt  and  Ethiopia,  and  it  is 
said  that  he  perished  in  the  ninetieth  year  of  our  era, 
under  Domitian ; but  the  manner  of  his  death  is  un- 
certain ; according  to  the  Greek  legend  he  died  in 
peaee,  but  according  to  the  tradition  of  the  Western 
Church  he  suffered  martyrdom  either  by  the  sword  or 
the  spear. 

Few  churches  are  dedicated  to  St.  Matthew.  I am 
not  aware  that  he  is  the  patron  saint  of  any  country, 
trade,  or  profession,  unless  it  be  tliat  of  tax-gatherer  or 
exciseman ; and  this  is  perhaps  the  reason  that,  except 
where  he  figures  as  one  of  the  series  of  Evangelists  or 
Apostles,  he  is  so  seldom  represented  alone,  or  in  de- 
votional pictures.  In  a large  altar-piece,  the  <<  San 
Matteo’^  of  Annibal  Caracci,^  he  is  standing  before 
the  throne  of  the  Madonna,  as  a pendant  to  John  the 
Baptist,  and  gives  his  name  to  the  picture : but  such 
examples  are  uncommon.  When  he  is  portrayed  as 
an  evangelist,  he  holds  a book  or  a pen;  and  the 
angel,  his  proper  attribute  and  attendant,  stands  by, 
pointing  up  to  heaven,  or  dictating ; or  he  holds  the 
inkhorn,  or  he  supports  the  book.  In  his  character  of 


Dresden  Gallery,  No.  828. 


144  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

apostle,  St.  Matthew  frequently  holds  a purse  or  money-* 
bag,  as  significant  of  his  former  vocation. 

Neither  are  pictures  from  his  life  of  frequent  occur- 
rence. The  principal  incident,  entitled  the  “ Calling 
of  Matthew,^^  has  been  occasionally,  but  not  often, 
treated  in  painting.  The  motif  is  simple,  and  not  easily 
mistaken.  St.  Matthew  is  seated  at  a kind  of  desk 
with  money  before  him ; various  personages  bring 
tribute ; on  one  side  is  seen  Christ,  with  one  or  two 
of  his  disciples,  generally  Peter  and  Andrew;  St. 
Matthew  is  either  looking  towards  him  with  an  ex- 
pression of  awe-struck  attention,  or  he  is  rising  from 
his  seat,  as  in  the  act  to  follow : the  mere  accessories 
and  number  of  the  personages  vary  with  the  period  of 
the  composition,  and  the  taste  of  the  painter. 

1.  The  earliest  instance  I can  cite,  probably  the 
oldest  which  has  come  down  to  us,  is  in  a Greek  MS. 
of  the  ninth  century.^  St.  Matthew  sits  with  both 
hands  on  a heap  of  gold,  lying  on  a table  before  him : 
he  looks  round  at  Christ,  who  is  a little  behind. 

2.  St.  Matthew  is  about  to  rise  to  follow  the  Sav- 
iour ; by  Matteo  di  Ser  Cambio  of  Perugia,  who  has 
represented  his  patron  saint  in  a small  composition.! 

3.  In  the  Queen’s  Gallery  at  Buckingham  Palace, 
there  is  a very  curious  and  interesting  picture  of  this 
subject,  by  Mabuse,  which  once  belonged  to  King 
Charles  I.,  and  is  quaintly  described  in  the  old  cata- 
logue of  his  pictures  as  a very  old,  defaced,  curious 
altar-piece,  upon  a thick  board,  where  Christ  is  calling 
St.  Matthew  out  of  the  custom-house;  which  picture 
was  got  in  Queen  Elizabeth’s  days,  in  the  taking  of 
Calus  Malus  (Cadiz),  in  Spain.  Painted  upon  a board 
in  a gilded  arched  frame,  like  an  altar-piece ; containing 
ten  big  figures,  less  than  half  so  big  as  the  life,  and 
some  twenty-two  afar  off  less  figures.  Given  to  the 
King.”  In  the  foreground  there  is  a rich  achitectural 
porch,  from  which  St.  Matthew  is  issuing  in  haste, 

* Paris  Bib.  du  Roi,  No.  510. 
t A.  D.  1377.  Eng.  in  Rossini,  pi.  24. 


ST.  MATTHEW. 


145 

leaving  his  money-bags  behind  ; and  in  the  background 
is  seen  the  lake  of  Gennesareth  and  shipping.  This 
picture  was  among  the  booty  taken  in  Essex^s  expedi- 
tion against  Cadiz  in  1596,  and  probably  stolen  from 
some  church. 

4.  In  the  Vienna  Gallery  I found  three  pictures  of 
the  same  subject,  all  by  Hemessen,  very  quaint  and 
curious. 

5.  At  Dresden  the  same  subject  in  the  Venetian, 
style  by  Pordenone. 

6.  By  Ludovico  Caracci,  a grand  scenic  picture, 
painted  for  the  Mendicanti  in  Bologna. 

7.  In  a chapel  of  the  church  of  San  Luigi  de’  Fran- 
cesi,  at  Borne,  there  are  three  pictures  by  Caravaggio 
from  the  life  of  St.  Matthew.  Over  the  altar  is  the 
saint  writing  his  Gospel ; he  looks  up  at  the  attendant 
angel,  who  is  behind,  with  outspread  wings,  and  in  the 
act  of  dictating.  On  the  left  is  the  calling  of  St.  Mat- 
thew ; the  saint,  who  has  been  counting  money,  rises 
with  one  hand  on  his  breast,  and'  turns  to  follow  the 
Saviour : an  old  man,  with  spectacles  on  his  nose,  ex- 
amines with  curiosity  the  personage  whose  summons 
has  had  such  a miraculous  effect : a boy  is  slyly  ap- 
propriating the  money  which  the  apostle  has  thrown 
down.  The  third  picture  is  the  martyrdom  of  the  saint, 
who,  in  the  sacerdotal  habit,  lies  extended  on  a block, 
while  a half-naked  executioner  raises  the  sword,  and 
several  spectators  shrink  back  with  horror.  There  is 
nothing  dignified  or  poetical  in  these  representations ; 
and  though  painted  with  all  that  power  of  effect  which 
characterized  Caravaggio,  then  at  the  height  of  his  rep- 
utation, they  have  also  his  coarseness  of  feeling  and 
execution : the  priests  were  (not  without  reason)  dis- 
satisfied ; and  it  required  all  the  influence  of  his  patron. 
Cardinal  Giustiniani,  to  induce  them  to  retain  the  pic- 
tures in  the  church  where  we  now  see  them ; — here 
we  sympathize  with  the  priests,  rather  than  with  the 
artist  and  his  patron. 

The  Feast  which  St.  Matthew  made  for  our  Saviour 
10 


146  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

and  his  disciples  is  the  subject  of  one  of  Paul  Vero- 
nese’s gorgeous  banquet  scenes ; that  which  he  painted 
for  the  refectory  of  the  Convent  of  St.  John  and  St. 
Paul  at  Venice.  It  is  now  in  the  Academy,  filling  up 
the  end  wall  of  one  of  the  great  rooms,  from  side  to 
side,  and  seeming  to  let  in  light  and  air  through  the 
lofty  marble  porticos,  which  give  us  such  a magnificent 
idea  of  the  splendor  which  surrounded  Levi  before  he 
left  all  to  follow  Jesus. 

In  all  the  representations  of  the  death  of  St.  Mat- 
thew, except  those  of  the  Greek  or  Byzantine  school, 
he  dies  by  the  sword.  The  Greek  artists  uniformly 
exhibit  him  as  dying  in  peace,  while  an  angel  swings 
the  censer  beside  his  bed  : as  on  the  ancient  doors  of 
San  Paolo  at  Rome. 

Pictures  from  the  legendary  life  of  St.  Matthew  are 
very  rare.  The  most  remarkable  are  the  frescos  in  the 
chapel  of  San  Matteo  at  Ravenna,  attributed  to  Giotto. 
They  are  so  much  _ ruined  that,  of  the  eight  subjects 
represented,  only  three  — his  vocation,  his  preaching 
and  healing  the  sick  in  Ethiopia,  and  the  baptism  of 
the  king  and  queen  — can  be  made  out.  In  the  Bed- 
ford missal  at  Paris  I found  a miniature,  representing 
St.  Matthew  « healing  the  son  and  daughter  of  King 
Egyptus  of  the  leprosy’’;  but,  as  a subject  of  art,  he 
is  not  popular. 


St.  Mark. 

Lat.  S.  Marcus.  Ital,  San  Marco  Evangelista.  Fr.  St.  Marc. 
Ger,  Der  Heilige  Marcus.  April  25,  A.  d.  68. 

St.  Mark  the  Evangelist  was  not  one  of  the  twelve 
Apostles:  his  conversion  apparently  took  place  after 
the  ascension.  He  was  the  companion  and  assistant  of 
Paul  and  Barnabas,  with  whom  he  preached  the  Gospel 
among  the  Gentiles.  According  to  the  traditions  re- 
ceived in  the  Roman  Church  he  was  converted  by  St. 
Peter,  and  became  his  favorite  disciple ; attended  him 


ST.  MARK. 


H7 

first  to  Aquileia,  where  they  converted  and  baptized 
the  people  on  the  sliores  of  the  Adriatic,  and  thence  to 
Rome.  While  there  he  wrote  his  Gospel  for  the  use  of 
the  Roman  converts,  — some  say  from  the  dictation 
of  the  apostle.  He  afterwards,  by  command  of  St. 
Peter,  went  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  Egypt ; and  after 
preaching  in  Lybia  and  Thebais  for  twelve  years,  he 
founded  the  church  of  Alexandria,  subsequently  one  of 
the  most  celebrated  of  all  the  early  Christian  churches. 
The  ire  of  the  heathen  being  stirred  up  against  him 
because  of  his  miracles,  they  reviled  him  as  a magician, 
and,  during  the  feast  of  their  god  Serapis,  seized  him 
while  in  the  act  of  worship,  bound  him,  and  dragged 
him  along  the  streets  and  highways,  and  over  stony 
and  rocky  places,  till  he  perished  miserably ; at  the 
same  time  a dreadful  tempest  of  hail  and  lightning  fell 
upon  his  murderers,  by  which  they  were  dispersed  and 
destroyed.  The  Christians  of  Alexandria  buried  his 
mangled  remains,  and  his  sepulchre  was  regarded  with 
great  reverence  for  several  centuries.  About  815,  a.  d., 
some  Venetian  merchants  trading  to  Alexandria  carried 
off  the  relics  (literally  stole  them,  — convey  the  wise 
it  call ! ^’)  and  they  were  deposited  in  the  city  of  Ven- 
ice, where  the  stately  church  of  St.  Mark  was  built 
over  them.  Since  that  time,  St.  Mark  has  been  hon- 
ored as  the  patron  saint  of  Venice,  and  his  legendary 
history  has  supplied  the  Venetian  painters  with  many 
beautiful  and  picturesque  subjects. 

When  St.  Mark  is  represented  as  one  of  the  four 
Evangelists,  either  singly  or  grouped  with  the  others, 
he  is  almost  invariably  accompanied  by  the  lion,  winged 
or  unwinged,  but  generally  winged,  — w'hich  distin- 
guishes him  from  St.  Jerome,  who  is  also  accompanied 
by  the  lion,  but  unwinged,  as  we  shall  see  hereafter. 

In  devotional  representations,  St.  Mark  often  wears 
the  habit  of  bishop,  as  first  bishop  of  Alexandria.  He 
is  thus  represented  in  the  colossal  mosaic  over  the 
principal  door  of  St.  Mark's  at  Venice  ^ in  the  pontifi- 

* Designed  by  Titian,  and  executed  by  F.  Zuccati. 


148  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


cals  of  a Greek  bishop,  no  mitre,  short  gray  hair  and 
beard ; one  hand  raised  in  benediction,  the  other  hold- 
ing the  Gospel. 

Of  the  innumerable  pictures  in  which  St.  Mark 
figures  as  patron  of  Venice,  I can  afford  to  give  a few 
examples  only. 

1.  A.  Busati.  He  is  seated  on  a throne;  an  open 
book  in  one  hand,  bearing  inscribed  the  Venetian 
motto  {^^la  Leggeyida  dd  Veneti”)  Pax  tibi.  Marge, 
Evangelista  MEus ; the  other  hand  blessing  : behind 
him  a fig-tree,  with  leaves  and  no  fruit ; probably  in 
allusion  to  the  text,  ch.  xi.  13,  which  is  peculiar  to  St. 
Mark.  On  his  right  stands  St.  Andrew  bearing  a 
cross ; on  the  left  St.  Bernardino  of  Siena ; behind 
him  the  apple-tree  which  ‘‘brought  death  into  the 
world  and  all  our  woe.’^  This  votive  picture,  from  its 
mystical  accessories  and  the  introduction  of  St.  Bernar- 
dino, was  probably  painted  for  tiie  Franciscans  (^  Frari) 
of  Venice.  It  is  now  in  the  Academy  there. 

2.  St.  Mark  on  a lofty  throne  holds  his  Gospel  in  his 
hand ; at  his  feet  the  four  saints  who  are  protectors 
against  sickness  and  pestilence,  St.  Sebastian,  St.  Roch, 
St.  Cosmo,  and  St.  Damian : a splendid  picture,  in 
Titian’s  early  manner.^  3.  St.  Mark  plants  the  stand- 
ard of  Venice,  by  Bonifazio.  And  4.  “ San  Marco  che 
assista  all’  coscrizione  maritima  ” (i.  e.  the  enlisting 
of  the  mariners  for  the  service  of  the  state), , by  G. 
del  Moro,  both  curious  instances  of  the  manner  in 
which  the  Venetians  mixed  up  their  patron  saint  with 
all  their  political  and  military  transactions.  5.  St. 
Mark  presents  the  Doge  Leonardo  Dona  to  the  Virgin ; 
the  most  remarkable  of  a numerous  class  of  votive 
pictures,  common  in  the  Venetian  school,  in  which  St. 
Mark  introduces  either  the  Doge  or  some  general  or 
magnifico  to  the  Virgin.f 

* It  is  so  like  Giorgione  in  sentiment  and  color  that  it  has  been 
attributed  to  him. 

t Beneath  the  monument  of  Nicolo  Orsini  in  the  SS.  Giovanni-e- 
Paolo  at  Venice.  A very  remarkable  and  beautiful  picture  of 


ST.  MARK. 


149 


Among  the  devotional  pictures  of  St.  Mark,  one  of 
the  most  famous  is  that  of  Fra  Bartolomeo,  in  the  Pal- 
lazzo  Pitti.  He  is  represented  as  a man  in  the  prime  of 
life,  with  bushy  hair,  and  a short  reddish  beard,  throned 
in  a niche,  and  holding  in  one  hand  the  Gospel,  in  the 
other  a pen ; the  lion  is  omitted.  The  Prate  painted 
this  picture  for  his  own  convent  of  San  Marco  at  Flor- 
ence. It  is  much  lauded  and  celebrated,  but  the  atti- 
tude appeared  to  me  rather  forced,  and  the  features 
rather  commonplace. 

The  legend  which  describes  St.  Mark  as  the  disciple 
and  amanuensis  of  St.  Peter  has  given  occasion  for 
those  votive  pictures  in  which  they  are  represented  to- 
gether. 1.  In  the  treasury  of  St.  Mark’s  is  preserved 
a golden  reliquary  of  a square  form,  containing,  it  is 
said,  a fragment  of  the  original  Gospel  in  the  hand- 
writing of  St.  Mark ; the  chased  cover  represents  St. 
Peter  on  a throne,  and  before  him  kneels  the  Evange- 
list, writing  from  his  dictation.  2.  And  again,  in  an 
ancient  Greek  Evangelarium,*  St.  Mark  is  seated,  wait- 
ing ; St.  Peter  stands  before  him  with  his  hand  raised 
as  dictating.  3.  In  a beautiful  picture  by  Angelico  da 
Fiesole,t  St.  Peter  is  in  a pulpit  preaching  to  the  Eo- 
mans ; and  Mark,  seated,  is  taking  down  his  words  in 
a book.  4.  St.  Peter  and  St.  Mark  standing  together, 
the  former  holding  a book,  the  latter  a pen,  with  an 
inkhorn  suspended  from  his  girdle,  by  Bellini ; X and, 
5.  a similar  one  by  Bonvicino,  — very  beautiful.  § Such 
pictures  are  extremely  interesting,  showing  the  opinion 
generally  entertained  of  the  origin  of  St.  Mark’s  Gos- 
pel. 

Historical  pictures  from  the  legendary  life  of  St. 
Mark  abound  in  the  Venetian  school,  but  are  not  often 
found  out  of  Venice. 

this  class  is  in  the  Berlin  Gallery  (No.  316),  St.  Mark,  enthroned 
and  holding  his  Gospel  open  on  his  knees,  is  instructing  three  of 
the  Procuradori  di  San  Marco j who  kneel  before  him  in  their 
rich  crimson  dresses  and  listen  reverently. 

* Yenice  Ducal  Palace.  t FI.  Gal. 

t Venice  Acad.  § Brera,  Milan. 


150  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

St.  Mark  preaching  the  Gospel  at  Alexandria,  by 
Gentil  Bellini,^  a very  large  composition  with  numer- 
ous figures,  is  on  many  accounts  extremely  curious. 
The  painter,  who  had  been  at  Constantinople,  trans- 
ferred to  Alexandria  the  Oriental  scenery  and  costume 
with  which  he  had  become  acquainted.  The  church 
of  St.  Euphemia  at  Alexandria,  in  the  background,  has 
the  air  of  a Turkish  mosque ; a crowd  of  persons,  men 
and  women,  in  the  costume  of  the  Turks,  surround  the 
saint,  who  is  standing  on  a kind  of  pedestal  or  plat- 
form, ascended  by  a flight  of  steps,  from  which  he  ad- 
dresses his  audience  with  great  fervor.  Gentil  Bellini 
painted  this  picture  for  the  Scuola  di  San  Marco,  at 
Venice. 

It  is  related  that  one  day  St.  Mark,  in  his  progress 
through  the  city  of  Alexandria,  saw  a poor  cobbler, 
who  had  wounded  his  hand  severely  with  his  awl,  so  as 
to  be  incapacitated  from  gaining  his  bread.  St.  Mark 
healed  the  wound ; and  the  cobbler,  whose  name  was 
Anianus,  being  converted  and  properly  instructed,  be- 
came a zealous  Christian,  and  succeeded  St.  Mark  as 
bishop  of  Alexandria.  This  miraculous  cure  of  St. 
Anianus,  and  his  subsequent  baptism,  are  represented 
in  two  pictures  by  Mansueti.f  In  the  Berlin  Gallery  is 
the  cure  of  St.  Anianus,  by  Cima  da  Conegliano ; a 
large  composition  with  many  figures.  The  cure  and 
baptism  of  St.  Anianus,  represented  as  a very  aged 
man,  form  the  subjects  of  two  fine  bas-reliefs  on  the 
fa9ade  of  the  School  of  St.  Mark,  by  Tullio  Lombardo, 
A.D.  1502. 

In  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Mark,  he  is  dragged  through 
the  streets  by  the  enraged  populace,  who  haul  him 
along  by  a rope ; a storm  from  above  overwhelms  the 
idolaters.  The  subject  is  thus  represented  by  Angelico 
da  Eiesole.f 

* Brera,  Milan. 

t A.  D.  1500.  Scuola  di  S.  Marco,  Venice. 

j FI.  Gal. 


ST,  MARK, 


A famous  legend  of  St.  Mark,  whieh  has  been  the 
subject  of  several  pictures,  can  only  be  worthily  given 
in  the  language  of  the  old  Venetian  chronicle.  There 
is  sometliing  perfectly  charming  in  the  picturesque 
naivete  and  matter-of-fact  detail  with  which  this  wild 
and  wonderful  story  is  related;  and  if  you,  reader, 
have  ever  stood  on  the  steps  of  the  Piazzetta  and 
looked  over  to  San  Giorgio,  or  San  Niccolb,  when  the 
waves  of  the  Lagune  were  foaming  and  driving  up  to 
your  feet,  and  storm-clouds  stooping  and  lowering 
seemed  to  touch  the  very  domes  and  campanile  around, 
then  you  will  have  the  whole  scene  as  a reality  before 
you. 

On  the  25th  of  Pebruary,  1340,  there  fell  out  a won- 
derful thing  in  this  land ; for  during  three  days  the 
waters  rose  continually,  and  in  the  night  there  was 
fearful  rain  and  tempest,  such  as  had  never  been  heard 
of.  So  great  was  the  storm  that  the  waters  rose  three 
cubits  higher  than  had  ever  been  known  in  Venice ; 
and  an  old  fisherman,  being  in  his  little  boat  in  the 
canal  of  St.  Mark,  reached  with  difficulty  the  Riva  di 
San  Marco,  and  there  he  fastened  his  boat,  and  waited 
the  ceasing  of  the  storm.  And  it  is  related  that,  at  the 
time  this  storm  was  at  the  highest,  there  came  an  un- 
known man,  and  besought  him  that  he  would  row  him 
over  to  San  Giorgio  Maggiore,  promising  to  pay  him 
well ; and  the  fisherman  replied,  ‘ How  is  it  possible  to 
go  to  San  Giorgio  ? we  shall  sink  by  the  way  ! ^ But 
the  man  only  besought  him  the  more  that  he  should  set 
forth.  So,  seeing  that  it  was  the  will  of  God,  he  arose 
and  rowed  over  to  San  Giorgio  Maggiore ; and  the  man 
landed  there,  and  desired  the  boatman  to  wait.  In  a 
short  while  he  returned  with  a young  man ; and  they 
said,  <Now  row  towards  San  Niccolb  di  Lido.’  And 
the  fisherman  said,  ^ How  can  one  possibly  go  so  far 
with  one  oar?’  And  they  said,  <Row  boldly,  for  it 
shall  be  possible  to  thee,  and  thou  shalt  be  well  paid.’ 
And  he  went ; and  it  appeared  to  him  as  if  the  waters 
were  smooth.  Being  arrived  at  San  Niccolb  di  Lido, 


152  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

the  two  men  landed,  and  returned  with  a third,  and, 
having  entered  into  the  boat,  they  commanded  the  fish- 
erman that  he  should  row  beyond  the  two  castles.  And 
the  tempest  raged  continually.  Being  come  to  the  open 
sea,  they  beheld  approaching,  with  such  terrific  speed 
that  it  appeared  to  fly  over  the  waters,  an  enormous 
galley  full  of  demons  (as  it  is  written  in  the  Chronicles, 
and  Marco  Sabellino  also  makes  mention  of  this  mira- 
cle) : the  said  bai'k  approached  the  castles  to  overwhelm 
Venice,  and  to  destroy  it  utterly ; anon  the  sea,  which 
had  hitherto  been  tumultuous,  became  calm ; and  these 
three  men,  having  made  the  sign  of  the  cross,  exorcised 
the  demons,  and  commanded  them  to  depart,  and  im- 
mediately the  galley  or  the  ship  vanished.  Then  these 
three  men  commanded  the  fisherman  to  land  them,  the 
one  at  San  Niccolb  di  Lido,  the  other  at  San  Giorgio 
Maggiore,  and  the  third  at  San  Marco.  And  when  he 
had  landed  the  third,  the  fisherman,  notwithstanding 
the  miracle  he  had  witnessed,  desired  that  he  would  pay 
him ; and  he  replied,  < Thou  art  right ; go  now  to  the 
Doge,  and  to  the  Procuratore  of  St.  Mark,  and  tell 
them  what  thou  hast  seen,  for  Venice  would  have  been 
overwhelmed  had  it  not  been  for  us  three.  I am  St. 
Mark  the  Evangelist,  the  protector  of  this  city ; the 
other  is  the  brave  knight  St.  George ; and  he  whom 
thou  didst  take  up  at  the  Lido  is  the  holy  bishop  St. 
Nicholas.  Say  to  the  Doge  and  to  the  Procuratori* 
that  they  are  to  pay  you ; and  tell  them  likewise  that 
this  tempest  arose  because  of  a certain  schoolmaster 
dwelling  at  San  Felice,  who  did  sell  his  soul  to  the 
Devil,  and  afterwards  hanged  himself.^  And  the  fish- 
erman replied,  < If  I should  tell  them  this,  they  will  not 
believe  me.'  Then  St.  Mark  took  off  a ring  which 
was  on  his  finger,  which  ring  was  worth  five  ducats  ; 
and  he  said,  ‘ Show  them  this,  and  tell  them  when  they 
look  in  the  sanctuary  they  will  not  find  it'  : and  there- 

* The  Procuratori  had  the  charge  of  the  church  and  the  treas- 
ury of  St.  Mark. 


ST.  MARK. 


153 


upon  he  disappeared.  The  next  morning,  the  said 
fisherman  presented  himself  before  the  Doge,  and  re- 
lated all  he  had  seen  the  night  before,  and  showed  him 
the  ring  for  a sign.  And  the  Procuratori  having  sent 
for  the  ring,  and  sought  in  the  usual  place,  found  it 
not;  by  reason  of  which  miracle  the  fisherman  was 
paid,  and  a solemn  procession  was  ordained,  giving 
thanks  to  God,  and  to  the  relies  of  the  three  holy 
saints,  who  rest  in  our  land,  and  who  delivered  us  from 
this  great  danger.  The  ring  was  given  to  Signor 
Marco  Loredano  and  to  Signor  Andrea  Dandolo  the 
Procuratori,  who  placed  it  in  the  sanctuary ; and, 
moreover,  a perpetual  provision  was  made  for  the  aged 
fisherman  above  mentioned.’^  ^ 

This  legend  is  the  subject  of  two  celebrated  pictures. 
The  first  attributed  to  Giorgione,!  represents  the  storm. 
A ship,  manned^ by  demons,  is  seen  towering  over  the 
waves : the  demons  appear  to  be  seized  with  consterna- 
tion ; some  fling  themselves  headlong  over  the  side  of 
their  vessel,  others  are  clinging  to  the  rigging,  others 
sit  on  the  masts,  which  flame  with  fire,  and  the  glare  is 
seen  over  the  murky  sky  and  sea.  More  in  front  are 
two  barks,  one  rowed  by  four  satyr-like  demons,  splen- 
did figures,  admirably  painted,  literally  glowing  as  if 
they  were  red-hot,  and  full  of  fierce  animation.  In  the 
other  bark  are  seen  the  three  saints,  St.  Mark,  St.  Nich- 
olas, and  St.  George,  rowed  by  the  fisherman ; sear 
monsters  are  sporting  amid  the  waves,  demons  bestride 
them ; the  city  of  Venice  is  just  visible  in  the  far-off 
distance.  The  whole  picture  is  full  of  vigor  and  poetic 
feeling ; the  fiery  glow  of  color  and  the  romantic  style 
of  Giorgione  suited  the  subject ; and  it  has  been  ad- 
mirably restored. 

The  second  picture  is  by  Paris  Bordone,!  and  repre- 
sents the  fisherman  presenting  the  miraculous  ring  of 
St.  Mark  to  the  Doge  Gradenigo.  It  is  like  a grand 
piece  of  scenic  decoration  : we  have  before  us  a mag- 

* Sanuto,  Vite  de’  Duci  Veneti. 

t Acad.  Venice. 


X Ibid. 


154  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

nificent  marble  hall,  with  columns  and  buildings  in 
perspective ; to  the  right,  on  the  summit  of  a flight  of 
steps,  sits  the  Doge  in  council ; the  poor  fisherman, 
ascending  the  steps,  holds  forth  the  ring.  The  numer- 
ous figures,  the  vivid  color,  the  luxuriant  architecture, 
remind  us  of  Paul  Veronese,  with,  however,  more  deli- 
cacy, both  in  color  and  execution. 

A Christian  slave,  in  the  service  of  a certain  noble- 
man of  Provence,  disobeyed  the  commands  of  his  lord, 
and  persisted  in  paying  his  devotions  at  the  shrine  of 
St.  Mark,  which  was  at  some  distance.  On  his  return 
home,  he  was  condemned  to  the  torture.  As  it  was 
about  to  be  inflicted,  the  saint  himself  descended  from 
heaven  to  aid  his  votary;  the  instruments  of  torture 
were  broken  or  blunted,  the  oppressor  and  his  execu- 
tioners confounded.  This  legend  is  the  subject  of  a 
celebrated  picture  by  Tintoretto,*  of  which  Mr.  Rogers 
had  the  original  sketch.  The  slave  lies  on  the  ground 
amid  a crowd  of  spectators,  who  look  on,  animated  by 
all  the  various  emotions  of  sympathy,  rage,  terror ; a 
woman  in  front,  with  a child  in  her  arms,  has  always 
been  admired  for  the  life-like  vivacity  of  her  attitude 
and  expression.  The  executioner  holds  up  the  broken 
implements  ; St.  Mark,  with  a headlong  movement, 
seems  to  rush  down  from  heaven  in  haste  to  save  his 
worshipper  ; the  dramatic  grouping  in  this  picture  is 
wonderful ; the  coloring,  in  its  gorgeous  depth  and 
harmony,  is,  in  Mr.  Rogerses  sketch,  finer  than  in  the 
picture. 

In  St.  Mark’s,  at  Venice,  we  find  the  w'hole  history 
of  St.  Mark  on  the  vault  of  the  Cappella  Zen  (opening 
from  the  Baptistery),  in  a series  of  very  curious  mo- 
saics of  the  twelfth  century.  The  translation  of  the 
body  of  St.  Mark ; the  carrying  off  the  relics  from 
Alexandria ; their  arrival  in  Venice  ; the  grand  relig- 
ious ceremonies  which  took  place  on  their  arrival ; are 


* Acad.  Venice. 


ST.  LUKE. 


155 

also  represented  in  the  mosaics  over  the  portico  of  St. 
Markus,  executed  chiefly  between  1650  and  1680.  We 
have  the  same  legend  in  two  compositions  of  Tinto- 
retto * : in  the  first,  the  remains  of  St.  Mark  are  taken 
forcibly  from  the  tomb  by  the  Venetian  mariners  ; in 
the  other,  they  are  borne  away  to  sea  in  a night-storm, 
while  in  the  air  is  seen  hovering  a bright  transparent 
form,  — the  soul  of  the  saint  flitting  with  his  body  to 
Venice. 


St.  Luke. 

Lat.  Sanctus  Luca.  Ital.  San  Luca.  Fr.  Saint  Luc.  Oct.  18. 

Or  the  real  history  of  St.  Luke  we  know  very  little. 
He  was  not  an  apostle ; and,  like  St.  Mark,  appears  to 
have  been  converted  after  the  Ascension.  He  was  a 
beloved  disciple  of  St.  Paul,  whom  he  accompanied  to 
Rome,  and  remained  with  his  master  and  teacher  till 
the  last.  It  is  related,  that,  after  the  martyrdom  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul,  he  preached  the  Gospel  in 
Greece  and  Egypt ; but  whether  he  died  a natural 
death,  or  suffered  martyrdom,  does  not  seem  clear. 
The  Greek  traditions  represent  him  as  dying  in  peace, 
and  his  death  was  thus  figured  on  the  ancient  doors  of 
San  Paolo  at  Rome.  Others  affirm  that  he  was  cruci- 
fied at  Patras  with  St.  Andrew. 

There  is  some  ground  for  the  supposition  that  Luke 
was  a physician.  (Col.  iv.  14.)  But  the  pretty  legend 
which  makes  him  a painter,  and  represents  him  as 
painting  the  portrait  of  the  Virgin  Mary,  is  unsup- 
ported by  any  of  the  earlier  traditions.  It  is  of  Greek 
origin,  still  universally  received  by  the  Greek  Church, 
which  considers  painting  a religious  art,  and  numbers 
in  its  calendar  of  saints  a long  list  of  painters,  as  well 
as  poets,  musicians,  and  physicians.  <‘Les  Grecs,'' 
says  Didron,  “ semblent  avoir  canonise  des  Chretiens 
uniquement  pareequfils  s^occupaient  de  soulager  le  corps 

* Yenice,  Ducal  Palace. 


156  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

ou  de  charmer  Fesprit/'  In  the  west  of  Europe,  the 
legend  which  represents  St.  Luke  as  a painter  can  be 
traced  no  higher  than  the  tenth  century ; the  Greek 
painters  introduced  it ; and  a rude  drawing  of  the 
Virgin  discovered  in  the  catacombs,  with  an  inscrip- 
tion purporting  that  it  was  one  of  seven  painted  by 
Luca,^^  confirmed  the  popular  belief  that  St.  Luke  the 
Evangelist  was  meant.  Thus  originated  the  fame  of 
innumerable  Virgins  of  peculiar  sanctity,  all  attributed 
to  his  hand,  and  regarded  with  extreme  veneration. 
Such  ancient  pictures  are  generally  of  Greek  work- 
manship, and  of  a black  complexion.*  In  the  legend 
of  St.  Luke  we  are  assured  that  he  carried  with  him 
everywhere  two  portraits,  painted  by  himself ; one  of 
our  Saviour,  and  one  of  the  Virgin ; and  that  by 
means  of  these  he  converted  many  of  the  heathen,  for 
not  only  did  they  perform  great  miracles,  but  all  who 
looked  on  these  bright  and  benign  faces,  which  bore  a 
striking  resemblance  to  each  other,  were  moved  to  ad- 
miration and  devotion.  It  is  also  said,  that  St.  Luke 
painted  many  portraits  of  the  Virgin,  delighting  him- 
self by  repeating  this  gracious  image  ; and  in  the 
church  of  Santa  Maria,  in  Via  Lata,  at  Rome,  they 
still  show  a little  chapel  in  which,  “ as  it  hath  been 
handed  down  from  the  first  ages,  St.  Luke  the  Evan- 

* The  little  black  Virgin  of  the  Monte  della  Guardia,  near  Bo- 
logna, I saw  carried  in  grand  procession  through  the  streets  of 
that  city,  in  May,  1847.  The  following  inscription  is  engraved  on 
a tablet  in  the  church  of  San  Domenico  and  San  Sisto  at  Rome  : 
“ Here  at  the  high  altar  is  preserved  that  image  of  the  most 
blessed  Mary,  which,  being  delineated  by  St,  Luke  the  Evangelist, 
received  its  colors  and  form  divinely.  This  is  that  image  with 
which  St.  Gregory  the  Great  (according  to  St.  Antonine),  as  a 
suppliant,  purified  Rome  5 and  the  pestilence  being  dispelled, 
the  angel  messenger  of  peace,  from  the  summit  of  the  castle  of 
Adrian,  commanding  the  Queen  of  Heaven  to  rejoice,  restored 
health  to  the  city.”  A Virgin  in  the  Ara  Coeli  pretends  to  the 
same  honor : both  these  are  black  and  ugly,  while  that  in  the  S. 
Maria  in  Cosmedino  is  of  uncommon  dignity  and  beauty.  See 
“Legends  of  the  Madonna.” 


ST.  LUKE. 


157 

gelist  wrote,  and  painted  the  effigy  of  the  Yirgin- 
mother  of  God.” 

On  the  strength  of  this  tradition,  St.  Luke  has  been 
chosen  as  the  patron  saint  of  painters.  Academies  of 
art  are  placed  under  his  particular  protection ; their 
chapels  are  dedicated  to  him,  and  over  the  altar  we  see, 
him  in  his  charming  and  pious  avocation,  that  of  paint- 
ing portraits  of  the  Blessed  Virgin  for  the  consolation 
of  the  faithful. 

The  devotional  figures  of  St.  Luke,  in  his  character 
of  evangelist,  represent  him  in  general  with  his  Gospel 
and  his  attendant  ox,  winged  or  unwinged,  as  already 
described ; but  in  Greek  Art,  and  in  those  schools  of 
Art  which  have  been  particularly  under  the  Byzantine 
influence  (as  the  early  Venetian),  we  see  St.  Luke  as 
evangelist,  young  and  beardless,  holding  the  portrait  of 
the  Virgin  as  his  attribute  in  one  hand,  and  his  Gospel 
in  the  other.  A beautiful  figure  of  St.  Luke  as  evan- 
gelist and  painter  is  in  the  famous  Heures  d’Anne  de 
Bretagne.”  ^ 

In  an  engraving  by  Lucas  v.  Leyden,  executed  as  it 
should  seem  in  honor  of  his  patron  saint,  St.  Luke  is 
seated  on  the  back  of  his  ox,  writing  the  Gospel ; he 
wears  a hood  like  an  old  professor,  rests  his  book 
against  the  horns  of  the  animal,  and  his  inkstand  is 
suspended  on  the  bough  of  a tree.  But  separate  devo- 
tional figures  of  him  as  patron  are  as  rare  as  those  of 
St.  Matthew. 

St.  Luke  painting  the  Virgin  has  been  a frequent 
and  favorite  subject.  The  most  famous  of  all  is  a pic- 
ture in  the  Academy  of  St.  Luke,  at  Rome,  ascribed 
to  Raphael.  Here  St.  Luke,  kneeling  on  a footstool 
before  an  easel,  is  busied  painting  the  Virgin  with  the 
child  in  her  arms,  who  appears  to  him  out  of  heaven, 
sustained  by  clouds  : behind  St.  Luke  stands  Raphael 
himself  looldng  on.  Another  of  the  same  subject,  a 
very  small  and  beautiful  picture,  also  ascribed  to  Ra- 
phael, is  in  the  Grosvenor  Gallery.  In  neither  of 

* MS.  A.  D.  1500,  Paris,  Bib.  Imp. 


158  SA  CRED  AND  LEGEND AR  Y AR  T, 

these  pictures  is  the  treatment  quite  worthy  of  that 
great  painter,  wanting  his  delicacy  both  of  sentiment 
and  execution.  There  is  a most  curious  and  quaint 
example  in  the  Munich  Gallery,  attributed  to  Van 
Eyck : here  the  Virgin,  seated  under  a rich  Gothic 
canopy,  holds  on  her  lap  the  Infant  Christ,  in  a most 
stiff  attitude ; St.  Luke,  kneeling  on  one  knee,  is  taking 
her  likeness.  There  is  another,  similar  in  style,  by 
Aldegraef,  in  the  Vienna  Gallery.  Carlo  Maratti  rep- 
resents St.  Luke  as  presenting  to  the  Virgin  the  picture 
he  has  painted  of  her.  St.  Luke  painting  the  Ma- 
donna and  Child,  while  an  angel  is  grinding  his  colors, 
I remember  in  the  Aguado  Gallery;  a late  Spanish 
picture.^ 


St.  John. 

Lat.  Sauctus  Johannes.  Gr.  St.  John  Theologos,  or  the  Divine. 
Ital.  San  Giovanni  Evangelista.  Fr.  Saint  Jeanj  Messire  Saint 
Jehan.  Ger.  Der  Heilige  Johan.  Dec.  27,  a.  d.  99. 

Of  St.  Matthew,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  Luke,  so  little 
is  certainly  known  that  we  have  no  data  on  which  to 
found  an  individual  portrait ; therefore  any  representa- 
tion of  them  as  venerable  and  inspired  teachers  suffices 
to  the  fancy ; but  it  is  quite  otherwise  with  St.  John, 
the  most  distinguished  of  the  Evangelists,  and  the  most 
beloved  of  the  disciples  of  our  Lord.  Of  him  sufficient 
is  known  to  convey  a distinct  impression  of  his  personal 
character,  and  an  idea  of  what  his  personal  appearance 
may  have  been,  supposing  this  outward  semblance  to 
have  harmonized  with  the  inward  being. 

He  was  the  son  of  the  fisherman  Zebedee,  and,  with 
his  brother  James,  among  the  first  followers  of  the  Sav- 
iour. He  is  emphatically  called  <<the  disciple  whom 
Jesus  loved  ” ; a preference  which  he  merited,  not  only 
from  the  extreme  purity  of  his  life  and  character,  but 
from  his  devoted  and  affectionate  nature.  He  appears 

* F,  Riziy  A.  D.  1660. 


ST.  JOHN. 


^S9 


to  have  been  at  all  times  the  constant  companion  of  his 
divine  Lord ; and  his  life,  while  the  Saviour  was  on 
earth,  inseparable  from  His.  In  all  the  memorable  cir- 
cumstances recorded  in  the  Gospel  he  was  a party,  or 
at  least  present.  He  witnessed  the  glory  of  the  trans- 
figuration ; he  leaned  on  the  bosom  of  Jesus  at  the  last 
supper ; he  stood  by  the  cross  in  the  hour  of  agony ; 
he  laid  the  body  of  his  crucified  Master  in  the  sepul- 
chre. After  the  death  of  the  Virgin  Mother,  who  had 
been  confided  to  his  care,  he  went  about  Judaea,  preach- 
ing the  Gospel  with  St.  Peter.  He  then  travelled  into 
Asia  Minor,  where  he  founded  the  Seven  Churches,  and 
resided  principally  at  Ephesus.  During  the  persecu- 
tion of  the  Christians  under  Domitian,  St.  John  was 
sent  in  fetters  to  Rome ; and,  according  to  a tradition 
generally  received  in  the  Roman  Church,  he  was  cast 
into  a caldron  of  boiling  oil,  but  was  miraculously 
preserved,  and  **  came  out  of  it  as  out  of  a refreshing 
bath.’'  He  was  then  accused  of  magic,  and  exiled  to 
the  island  of  Patmos,  in  the  JEgean  Sea,  where  he  is 
said  to  have  written  his  Revelations.  After  the  death 
of  the  Emperor  Domitian  he  was  released,  and  returned 
to  his  church  at  Ephesus ; and  for  the  use  of  the  Chris- 
tians there  he  is  said  to  have  written  his  Gospel,  at  the 
age  of  ninety.  A few  years  afterwards  he  died  in  that 
city,  being  nearly  a century  old.  All  the  incidents  here 
touched  upon  occur  frequently  as  subjects  of  art,  but 
most  of  them  belong  properly  to  the  life  of  Christ. 

The  personal  character  of  St.  John,  at  once  attrac- 
tive and  picturesque,  has  rendered  him  popular  as  a 
patron  saint,  and  devotional  pictures  of  him  are  far 
more  numerous  than  of  any  of  the  other  Evangelists. 

He  is  represented  in  one  of  his  three  characters  : 1. 
as  evangelist;  2.  as  apostle;  3.  as  prophet;  or  the 
three  are  combined  in  one  figure. 

1.  Of  the  early  eagle  symbol,  I have  spoken  at 
length. 

In  Greek  Art,  whether  as  apostle  or  evangelist,  St. 


i6o  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


John  is  always  an  aged  man  with  white  hair,  and  a 
venerable  beard  descending  to  his  breast ; and  by  the 
earlier  Latin  painters,  where  he  figures  as  evangelist 
only,  not  as  apostle,  this  type  has  been  adhered  to ; but 
the  later  painters  set  it  aside,  and  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, nearly  a century  old,  has  all  the  attributes  of  the 
youthful  apostle.  He  is  beardless,  with  light  curling 
hair,  and  eyes  gazing  upwards  in  a rapture  of  inspira- 
tion : he  is  sometimes  seated  with  his  pen  and  his  book, 
sometimes  standing;  the  attendant  eagle  always  near 
him,  and  frequently  holding  the  pen  or  inkhorn  in  his 
beak. 

In  some  of  the  old  prints  and  pictures,  which  repre- 
sent St.  John  as  writing  the  Gospel,  his  eyes  are  turned 
on  the  Virgin  with  the  Infant  Christ  in  her  arms,  who 
appear  as  a vision  in  the  skies  above  ; underneath, 
or  on  his  book,  is  inscribed,  “ The  Word  was  made 
flesh, or  some  other  text  of  the  same  import.  The 
eagle  at  his  side  has  sometimes  the  nimbus,  or  a crown 
of  stars,*  and  is  then  perhaps  intended  to  figure  the 
Holy  Ghost. 

I remember  an  instance  in  which  the  Devil,  intent  on 
intercepting  the  message  of  reconcilement  and  “ good- 
will towards  men,^^  which  was  destined  to  destroy  his 
empire  on  earth,  appears  behind  St.  John,  and  is  over- 
setting the  ink  upon  the  pages  ; another,  in  which  he  is 
stealing  away  the  inkhorn. 

2.  As  one  of  the  series  of  apostles,  St.  John  is  al- 
ways, in  Western  Art,  young,  or  in  the  prime  of  life ; 
with  little  or  no  beard ; flowing  or  curling  hair,  gener- 
ally of  a pale  brown  or  golden  hue,  to  express  the  del- 
icacy of  his  nature ; and  in  his  countenance  an  expres- 
sion of  benignity  and  candor.  His  drapery  is,  or  ought 
to  be,  red,  with  a blue  or  green  tunic.  He  bears  in  his 
hand  the  sacramental  cup,  from  which  a serpent  is  seen 
to  issue.  St.  Isidore  relates  that,  at  Home,  an  attempt 
was  made  to  poison  St.  John  in  the  cup  of  the  sacra- 
ment : he  drank  of  the  same  and  administered  it  to  the 

* As  in  the  Missal  of  Henry  VIII.,  Bodleian,  Oxford. 


ST,  JOHN. 


i6i 


communicants  without  injury,  the  poison  having  by  a 
miracle  issued  from  the  cup  in  the  form  of  a serpent, 
while  the  hired  assassin  fell  down  dead  at  his  feet.  Ac- 
cording to  another  version  of  this  story,  the  poisoned 
cup  was  administered  by  order  of  the  Emperor  Domi- 
tian.  According  to  a third  version,  Aristodemus,  the 
high-priest  of  Diana,  at  Ephesus,  defied  him  to  drink 
of  the  poisoned  chalice,  as  a test  of  the  truth  of  his 
mission.  St.  John  drank  unharmed,  — the  priest  fell 
dead.  Others  say,  and  this  seems  the  more  probable 
interpretation,  that  the  cup  in  the  hand  of  St.  John  al- 
ludes to  the  reply  given  by  our  Saviour,  when  the 
mother  of  James  and  John  requested  for  her  sons  the 
place  of  honor  in  heaven,  — <<  Ye  shall  drink  indeed  of 
my  cup.”  As  in  other  instances,  the  legend  was  in- 
vented to  explain  the  symbol.  When  the  cup  has  the 
consecrated  wafer  instead  of  the  serpent,  it  signifies  the 
institution  of  the  Eucharist. 

Some  of  the  old  German  representations  of  St.  John 
are  of  singular  beauty : for  example,  one  by  Hans 
Hemlingy  one  by  Isaac  von  Mdem^^  standing  figures ; 
simple,  graceful,  majestic ; in  the  prime  of  youth,  with 
a charming  expression  of  devotion  in  the  heads : both 
hold  the  sacramental  cup  with  the  serpent ; no  eagle ; 
therefore  St.  John  is  here  to  be  considered  as  the  apos- 
tle only : when,  with  the  cup,  the  eagle  is  placed  by  his 
side,  he  is  represented  in  the  double  character  of  apostle 
and  evangelist. 

In  the  early  Siena  school,  and  in  some  old  illumina- 
tions, I have  seen  St.  John  carrying  in  his  hand  a ra- 
diant circle,  inscribed  “ In  primo  est  verbum”  and  within 
the  circle  an  eagle  with  outspread  wings : but  this  is 
uncommon. 

3.  St.  John  as  the  prophet,  the  writer  of  the  Revela- 
tions, is  usually  an  aged  man,  with  a white  flowing 
beard,  seated  in  a rocky  desert ; the  sea  in  the  distance, 

* Both  among  the  fine  lithographs  of  the  Boisseree  Gallery. 

II 


1 62  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


or  flowing  round  him,  to  represent  the  island  of  Pat- 
mos ; the  eagle  at  his  side.  In  the  old  frescos,  and  the 
illuminated  MSS.  of  the  Apocalypse,  this  is  the  usual 
representation. 

Some  examples  of  the  ideal  and  devotional  figures 
of  St.  John,  as  evangelist  and  prophet,  will  give  an 
idea  of  the  variety  of  treatment  in  this  favorite  sub- 
ject : — 

1.  Ancient  Greek.  St.  John,  with  the  head  of  an 
eagle  and  large  wings,  the  figure  fully  draped,  is  soar- 
ing upwards.  In  such  representations  the  inscription 
is  usually.  Quasi  aquila  ascendet  et  avolaUty  Behold, 
he  shall  come  up  and  fly  as  the  eagle.^^  (Jer.  xlix.  22.) 

2.  Perugino.  St.  John  as  an  aged  man,  with  long 
gray  beard  and  flowing  hair,  attended  by  a black  eagle, 
looking  up  at  the  Madonna  in  glory.* 

3.  Kaphael  (?).  St.  John,  young  and  beautiful, 
mounted  on  the  back  of  an  eagle,  and  soaring  heaven- 
wards : in  one  hand  he  holds  a tablet,  in  the  other  a 
pen : sea  and  land  below.  This  treatment,  which  re- 
calls the  antique  Jupiter  bestriding  his  eagle,  appears 
to  me  at  once  too  theatrical  and  too  commonplace  for 
Kaphael.f 

4.  Correggio.  St.  John  seated  writing  his  Gospel ; 
the  eagle  at  his  feet  is  pluming  his  wing : inscribed 

Altius  cceteris  Dei  patefecit  arcana.**  One  of  the  series 
of  Evangelists  in  the  Duomo  of  Parma,  — wonderfully 
beautiful. 

5.  Domenichino.  St.  John,  full  length,  life  size; 
young  and  beautiful,  in  an  ecstasy  of  inspiration,  and 
sustained  by  two  angels ; the  eagle  at  his  feet : for- 
merly in  the  Giustiniani  Gallery  ; J — finer,  I think, 
than  the  St.  John  in  Sant*  Andrea.  Another,  half 
length,  a scroll  in  his  hand,  looking  upwards  as  one  to 
whom  the  glory  of  the  heavens  had  been  opened ; — 
you  see  it  reflected  in  his  eyes,  — while  love,  wonder, 

* Acad.  Bologna. 

J Leigh  Court,  Gal.  of  Mr.  Miles. 


t Musee,  Marseilles. 


;ST.  JOHN-. 


163 

devotion,  beam  from  his  beautiful  face  and  parted  lips  : 
behind  him  hovers  the  attendant  eagle,  holding  the  pen 
in  his  beak  ; near  him  is  the  chalice,  with  the  serpent ; 
so  that  here  he  is  in  his  double  character  of  apostle 
and  evangelist.*  Domenichino  excelled  in  St.  Johns, 
as  Guido  in  Magdalenes ; perhaps  the  most  beautiful 
of  all  is  that  in  the  Brera,  at  Milan,  where  St.  John 
bends  on  one  knee  at  the  foot  of  the  throne  of  the 
Madonna  and  Child,  his  pen  in  one  hand,  the  other 
pressed  to  his  bosom,  and  looking  up  to  them  with  an 
air  of  ecstatic  inspiration.  Two  little  angels,  or  rather 
amarettif  are  in  attendance  : one  has  his  arms  round 
the  neck  of  the  eagle,  sporting  with  it ; the  other  holds 
up  the  cup  and  the  serpent.  Every  detail  is  com- 
posed and  painted  to  admiration  ; but  this  is  the 
artistic  and  picturesque,  not  the  religious,  version  of 
the  subject. 

St.  John  is  frequently  represented  with  St.  Peter, 
because,  after  the  ascension,  they  taught  and  acted  in 
concert.  In  such  pictures,  the  contrast  between  the 
fiery  resolve  and  sturdy,  rugged  grandeur  which  is 
given  to  St.  Peter,  and  the  refinement,  mildness,  and 
personal  grace  of  St.  John,  produces  a fine  efiect : as 
in  Albert  Diirer’s  picture, t where  John  is  holding 
open  the  Gospel,  and  Peter  apparently  reading  it  ; 
two  grand  and  simple  figures,  filling  the  mind  as  we 
gaze  upon  them.  As  this  picture  was  painted  after 
Albert  Diirer  became  a Protestant,  I have  thought  it 
possible  that  he  might  have  had  some  particular  mean- 
ing in  thus  making  Peter  study  the  Gospel  of  John. 
At  all  events,  Albert  Diirer  was  quite  capable  of  such 
an  intention ; and,  whether  intended  or  not,  the  picture 
may  be,  and  has  been,  thus  interpreted.  The  prophets 
and  the  poets  often  say  more  than  they  intended,  for 
their  light  was  for  others  more  than  for  themselves  : so 
also  the  great  painters,  — the  Raphaels  and  Albert  Du- 
rers,  — prophets  and  poets  in  their  way.  When  I have 

* Petersburg,  Gal.  of  Prince  Narishken.  Eng.  by  Muller. 

t Munich  Gal. 


1 64  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

heard  certain  critics  ridiculed  because  they  found  more 
in  the  productions  of  a Shakespeare  or  a Raphael  than 
the  poet  or  painter  himself  ever  perceived  or  in- 
tended/^ such  ridicule  has  appeared  to  me  in  the  high- 
est degree  presumptuous  and  absurd.  The  true  artist 
feels  that  he  is  greater  than  he  knows.”  In  giving 
form  or  utterance  to  the  soul  within  him,  does  he  ac- 
count to  himself  for  all  the  world  of  thoughts  his  work 
will  excite  in  the  minds  of  others  ? Is  its  significance 
to  be  circumscribed  either  by  the  intention  and  the 
knowledge  of  the  poet,  or  the  comprehension  of  the 
age  in  which  he  lived  ? That  is  the  characteristic  of 
the  second-rate,  self-conscious  poets  or  painters,  whom 
we  read  or  study  because  they  refiect  to  us  a particular 
meaning,  — a particular  period,  — but  not  of  the  Ho- 
mers and  Shakespeares,  the  Raphaels  and  Albert  Dii- 
rers  ; they  speak  to  all  times,  to  all  men,  with  a 
suggestive  significance,  widening,  deepening  with  every 
successive  generation  ; and  to  measure  their  depth  of 
meaning  by  their  own  intention^  or  by  the  comprehen- 
sion of  their  own  or  any  one  generation,  what  is  it  but 
to  measure  the  star  of  heaven  by  its  apparent  magni- 
tude % — an  inch  rule  will  do  that ! 

But  to  return  from  this  digression.  In  devotional 
pictures  we  often  see  St.  John  the  Evangelist  and  St. 
John  the  Baptist  standing  together ; or  on  each  side 
of  Christ,  or  of  the  Madonna  and  Child.  There  is  a 
peculiar  propriety  and  significance  in  this  companion- 
ship : both  are,  then,  to  be  considered  as  prophets ; 
they  were,  besides,  kinsmen,  and  bore  the  same  name ; 
and  St.  John  the  Evangelist  was  the  disciple  of  John 
the  Baptist  before  he  was  called  by  Christ.  Here, 
again,  the  contrast  between  the  dark,  emaciated,  hairy 
prophet  of  the  vdlderness,  and  the  graceful  dignity  of 
the  youthful  apostle,  has  a striking  effect.  An  example 
at  hand  is  the  bronze  bas-relief  on  the  tomb  of  Henry 
VII.*  Madonna  pictures,  in  which  the  two  St.  Johns 
stand  before  her  throne,  occur  frequently.  I remem- 


* Westmin.  Abbey. 


ST,  JOHN, 


165 

ber,  also,  a marble  group  of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  in 
which  the  two  St.  Johns,  as  infants,  are  playing  at  her 
feet,  one  with  his  eagle,  the  other  with  his  reed  cross. ^ 

As  one  who  bore  the  most  direct  testimony  to  the 
Incarnation,  St.  John  is  often  introduced  into  Madonna 
pictures,  and  pictures  of  the  Nativity  ; but  in  the  later 
schools  only.  In  these  instances  he  points  significantly 
to  the  Child,  and  the  sacramental  cup  and  wafer  is 
either  in  his  hand  or  at  his  feet,  or  borne  by  an  angel. 

The  historical  and  dramatic  subjects  in  which  St. 
John  figures  as  a principal  personage  are  very  numer- 
ous. As  the  Scriptural  scenes  belong  properly  to  the 
life  of  Christ,  I shall  confine  myself  here  to  some  ob- 
servations on  the  manner  in  which  St.  John  is  intro- 
duced and  treated  in  such  pictures.  In  general  he  is 
to  be  distinguished  from  the  other  apostles  by  his  youth 
and  beauty,  and  flowing  hair ; and  by  being  placed 
nearest  to  Christ  as  the  most  beloved  of  his  disciples. 

“ The  mother  of  James  and  John  imploring  from 
our  Saviour  the  highest  place  in  heaven  for  her  two 
sons’^  (Matt.  xx.  21)  : a picture  by  Bonifazio,  in 
the  Borghese  Gallery,  beautiful  both  in  sentiment  and 
color.  There  is  another  example  by  Paul  Veronese  ; 
and  another,  by  Tintoretto,  was  in  the  Coesvelt  Gal- 
lery. I must  observe  that,  except  in  Venetian  pic- 
tures, I have  not  met  with  this  incident  as  a separate 
subject. 

In  the  last  supper,  Peter  is  generally  on  the  right 
of  Christ,  and  St.  John  on  the  left : he  leans  his  head 
down  on  the  bosom  of  Christ  (this  is  always  the  atti- 
tude in  the  oldest  pictures) ; or  he  leans  towards  Christ, 
who  places  his  hand  upon  his  shoulder,  drawing  him 
towards  him  with  an  expression  of  tenderness  : this  is 
the  action  in  the  fresco  by  Raphael  lately  discovered  at 
Florence.  But  I must  reserve  the  full  consideration 
of  this  subject  for  another  place. 

Where,  instead  of  the  last  supper,  our  Saviour  is 

* Rome,  S.  Maria-sopra-Minerva. 


166  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


represented  as  administering  the  Eucharist,  St.  John 
is  seen  on  his  right  hand,  bearing  the  cup. 

In  the  crucifixion,  when  treated  as  a religious  rather 
than  an  historical  subject,  St.  John  stands  on  the  left 
of  the  Cross,  and  the  Yirgin  on  the  right ; both  in 
attitudes  of  the  profoundest  grief  and  adoration  min- 
gled. In  general  the  motif  of  this  sacred  subject  does 
not  vary;  but  I remember  examples  in  which  St. 
John  is  seen  trampling  a Jew  under  his  feet ; on  the 
other  side  the  Virgin  tramples  on  a veiled  woman,  sig- 
nifying the  old  law,  the  synagogue,  as  opposed  to  the 
Christian  Church,  of  which  the  Virgin  was  the  received 
symbol. 

When  the  crucifixion  is  a scene  or  action,  not  a mys- 
tery ^ then  St.  John  is  beheld  afar  otf,  with  the  women 
who  followed  their  divine  Master  to  Calvary. 

St.  John  and  the  Virgin  Mary  returning  from  the 
crucifixion  : he  appears  to  be  sustaining  her  slow  and 
fainting  steps.  I have  only  once  met  with  this  beau- 
tiful subject,  in  a picture  by  Zurbaran,  in  the  Munich 
Gallery. 

In  the  descent  from  the  Cross,  St.  John  is  a chief 
actor ; he  generally  sustains  the  head  of  the  Saviour, 
and  is  distinguished  by  an  expression  of  extreme  sor- 
row and  tenderness.  In  the  entombment  he  is  some- 
times one  of  the  bearers,  sometimes  he  follows  lament- 
ing. In  a print  of  the  entombment  after  Andrea 
Mantegna,  he  is  not  only  weeping  and  wringing  his 
hands  as  usual,  but  absolutely  crying  aloud  with  the 
most  exaggerated  expression  of  anguish.  In  pictures 
of  the  descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  St.  John  is  usually  a 
conspicuous  figure,  and  in  the  foreground.  In  the  as- 
sumption of  the  Virgin,  he  is  also  conspicuous,  gener- 
ally in  front,  as  the  pendant  to  St.  Peter,  and  gazing 
Upwards  with  ecstatic  faith  and  devotion. 

Of  course  there  is  great  variety  in  these  represen- 
tations : the  later  painters  thought  less  of  individual 
character  and  significant  propriety  of  arrangement  than 
of  artistic  grouping  ; therefore  the  above  remarks  have 
reference  to  the  early  painters  only. 


ST.  JOHN. 


167 

In  the  scenes  taken  from  the  Acts,  St.  John  is  al- 
ways in  companionship  with  St.  Peter,  and  becomes 
the  secondary  figure. 

St.  John  writing  his  Revelations  in  the  Island  of 
Patmos  is  a subject  which  frequently  occurs  in  MSS. 
of  the  Apocalypse,  and  in  the  chapels  dedicated  to  St. 
John.  The  motif  is  generally  the  same  in  all ; we 
have  a desert  island,  with  the  sea  in  the  distance,  or 
flowing  round  it ; St.  John,  seated  on  a rock  or  under 
a tree,  is  in  the  act  of  writing  ; or  he  is  looking  up  to 
heaven,  where  the  Woman  crowned  with  stars, or 
“ the  Woman  fleeing  from  the  dragon,”  appears  as  in 
his  vision.*  (Rev.  xii.)  Or  he  beholds  St.  Michael, 
armed,  cast  down  the  dragon  in  human  form ; he  has 
the  eagle  and  book,  and  looks  up  at  the  Virgin,  as  in 
a picture  by  Ambrogio  Figino.f  The  eagle  is  always 
in  attendance  as  the  symbol  of  inspiration  in  a general 
sense ; when  represented  with  a diadem,  or  glory,  as 
in  some  very  early  examples,  it  is  a symbol  of  the 
Holy  Ghost,  which,  among  the  Jews,  was  figured  by 
the  eagle.  * 

The  subjects  from  the  legendary  life  of  St.  John  are 
exceedingly  interesting,  but  they  are  not  easily  recog- 
nized, and  require  particular  attention ; some  are  of 
frequent  occurrence,  others  rarely  met  with. 

1.  Israel  v.  Meckenen.  St.  John  instructing  his 
disciples  at  Ephesus.  (Acts  iv.  37.)  The  scene  is 
the  interior  of  a Gothic  church,  the  windows  painted 
with  heraldic  emblazonments  : St.  John  is  seated  ex- 
pounding the  Scriptures,  and  five  disciples  sit  opposite 
to  him  with  coarse,  ugly  faces,  but  most  intent,  expres- 
sive countenances  ; in  the  background,  a large  chest 
full  of  money. 

2.  Vatican,  Chr.  Mus.  St.  John  drinking  from  the 
-poisoned  chalice ; a man  falls  down  dead  at  his  feet, 
several  figures  look  on  with  awe  and  astonishment : 
this  is  a frequent  subject  in  the  elder  schools  of  art, 
and  in  the  illuminated  MSS.  of  the  Gospel  and  Apoc- 

* V.  “ Legends  of  the  Madonna.”  f Brera,  Milan. 


1 68  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


alypse : but  I have  never  met  with  a representation 
later  than  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century.^ 

3.  It  is  related  by  Clement  of  Alexandria,  that  when 
St.  John  was  at  Ephesus,  and  before  he  was  exiled  to 
Patmos,  he  had  taken  to  his  care  a young  man  of 
promising  qualities  of  person  and  mind.  During  his 
absence  he  left  him  under  the  spiritual  guidance  of  a 
certain  bishop ; but,  after  a while,  the  youth  took  to 
evil  courses,  and,  proceeding  from  one  excess  to  an- 
other, he  at  length  became  the  leader  of  a band  of 
robbers  and  assassins,  who  struck  terror  into  the  whole 
country.  When  St.  John  returned  to  Ephesus,  he 
went  to  the  bishop  and  demanded  the  precious  de- 
posit he  had  left  in  his  hands. At  first  the  priest  did 
not  understand  him  ; but  when  St.  John  explained  the 
allusion  to  his  adopted  son,  he  cast  down  his  eyes  with 
sorrow  and  shame,  and  told  of  what  had  befallen. 
Then  St.  John  rent  his  garments,  and  wept  with  a 
loud  voice,  and  cried  out,  Alas  ! alas ! to  what  a 
guardian  have  I trusted  our  brother  ! ” And  he  called 
for  a horse  and  rode  towards  the  forest  in  which  the 
robbers  sojourned  ; and  when  the  captain  of  the  rob- 
bers beheld  his  old  master  and  instructor,  he  turned 
and  would  have  fled  from  his  presence ; but  St.  John, 
by  the  most  fervent  entreaties,  prevailed  on  him  to 
stop  and  listen  to  his  words.  After  some  conference, 
the  robber,  utterly  subdued,  burst  into  tears  of  peni- 
tence, imploring  forgiveness ; and  while  he  spoke,  he 
hid  beneath  his  robe  his  right  hand,  which  had  been 
sullied  with  so  many  crimes  ; but  St.  John,  falling  on 
his  knees  before  him,  seized  that  blood-polluted  hand, 
and  kissed  it,  and  bathed  it  with  his  tears  ; and  he 
remained  with  his  re-converted  brother  till  he  had,  by 
prayers  and  encouraging  words  and  affectionate  ex- 

* We  find  among  the  relics  exhibited  on  great  occasions  in  the 
church  of  the  S.  Croce  at  Rome  “the  cup  in  which  St.  John,  the 
apostle  and  evangelist,  by  command  of  Domitian  the  emperor, 
drank  poison  without  receiving  any  injury  5 which  afterwards 
being  tasted  by  his  attendants,  on  the  instant  they  fell  dead.” 


ST.  JOHN.  169 

hortations,  reconciled  him  with  Heaven  and  with  him- 
self. 

This  beautiful  legend  is  the  subject  of  some  old  en- 
gravings, in  which  St.  John  is  represented  embracing 
the  robber,  who  is  weeping  on  his  neck,  having  flung 
away  his  weapons.  It  has  been,  however,  too  rarely 
treated ; I have  never  met  with  a picture  of  the  sub- 
ject ; and  yet  it  abounds  in  picturesque  capabilities  : 
the  forest  background,  — the  contrast  of  youth  and  age, 
— bright  armor,  flowing  drapery,  and  the  most  strik- 
ing and  affecting  moral,  are  here  all  combined. 

4.  Another  very  pretty  apologue  relating  to  St.  John 
is  sometimes  included  in  a series  of  subjects  from  his 
life.  Two  young  men,  who  had  sold  all  their  posses- 
sions to  follow  him,  afterwards  repented.  He,  perceiv- 
ing their  thoughts,  sent  them  to  gather  pebbles  and 
fagots,  and,  on  their  return,  changed  these  into  money 
and  ingots  of  gold,  saying  to  them,  “ Take  back  your 
riches  and  enjoy  them  on  earth,  as  you  regret  having 
exchanged  them  for  heaven ! ” This  story  is  repre- 
sented on  one  of  the  windows  of  the  Cathedral  at 
Bourges.  The  two  young  men  stand  before  St.  John, 
with  a heap  of  gold  on  one  side,  and  a heap  of  stones 
and  fagots  on  the  other. 

5.  When  St.  John  had  sojourned  in  the  island  of 
Patmos  a year  and  a day,  he  returned  to  his  church  at 
Ephesus ; and  as  he  approached  the  city,  being  re- 

» ceived  with  great  joy  by  the  inhabitants,  lo  ! a funeral 
procession  came  forth  from  the  gates;  and  of  those 
w'ho  followed  weeping  he  inquired  ‘‘  who  was  dead  ? 
They  said  Drusiana.'^  Now  when  he  heard  that 
name  he  was  sad,  for  Drusiana  had  excelled  in  aU 
good  works,  and  he  had  formerly  dwelt  in  her  house ; 
and  he  ordered  them  to  set  down  the  bier,  and  having 
prayed  earnestly,  God  was  pleased  to  restore  Drusiana 
to  life ; she  arose  up,  and  the  apostle  went  home  with 
her  and  dwelt  in  her  house. 

This  incident  is  the  subject  of  a flne  fresco,  painted 
by  Filippo  Lippi,  on  the  left-hand  wall  of  the  Strozzi 


170  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

Chapel  at  Florence.  It  has  the  forcible  expression  and 
dramatic  spirit  of  the  painter,  with  that  characteristic 
want  of  elevated  feeling  in  the  countenances  and  in  the 
general  treatment  which  is  apparent  in  all  his  works ; 
the  group  in  one  corner,  of  a child  starting  from  a dog, 
is  admired  for  its  truth  ; but,  by  disturbing  the  solem- 
nity of  the  marvellous  scene,  it  repels  like  a falsehood. 

6.  There  is  another  beautiful  and  picturesque  legend 
relating  to  St.  John,  of  which  I have  never  seen  any 
representation ; but  it  may,  possibly,  have  occasioned 
the  frequent  introduction  of  a partridge  into  the  pictures 
of  sacred  subjects,  particularly  in  the  Venetian  School. 
St.  John  had  a tame  partridge,  which  he  cherished 
much ; and  he  amused  himself  with  feeding  and  tend- 
ing it.  ‘'A  certain  huntsman,  passing  by  with  his 
bow  and  arrows,  was  astonished  to  see  the  great  apostle, 
so  venerable  for  his  age  and  sanctity,  engaged  in  such 
an  amusement.  The  apostle  asked  him  if  he  always 
kept  his  bow  bent  ? He  answered,  that  would  be  the 
way  to  render  it  useless.  ‘If,^  replied  St.  John,  ‘you 
unbend  your  bow  to  prevent  its  being  useless,  so  do  I 
thus  unbend  my  mind  for  the  same  reason.'  ” 

7.  The  subject  entitled  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  John 
represents  his  immersion  in  a caldron  of  boiling  oil, 
by  order  of  the  Emperor  Domitian.  According  to  the 
received  tradition,  this  event  took  place  outside  the 
Latin  gate  at  Rome  ; and  on  the  spot  stands  the  chapel 
of  San  Giovanni  in  Olio,  commemorating  his  miracu-  ^ 
lous  deliverance,  which  is  painted  in  fresco  on  the  walls. 
The  subject  forms,  of  course,  one  of  a series  of  the  life 
of  St.  John,  and  is  occasionally  met  with  in  old  prints 
and  pictures ; but  it  is  uncommon.  The  treatment 
affords  little  variety ; in  Albert  Diirer's  famous  wood- 
cut,  St.  John  is  sitting  in  a pot  of  boiling  oil ; one 
executioner  is  blowing  the  fire,  another  is  pouring  oil 
from  a ladle  on  the  saint's  head ; a judge,  probably  in- 
tended for  Domitian,  is  seated  on  a throne  to  the  left, 
and  there  are  numerous  spectators.  Padovanino  painted 
this  subject  for  the  San  Pietro  at  Venice ; Rubens,  with 


ST,  JOHN, 


171 

horrible  truth  of  detail,  for  the  altar-piece  of  St.  John 
at  Malines. 

It  is  the  martyrdom  in  the  boiling  oil  which  gives 
St.  John  the  right  to  bear  the  palm,  with  which  he  is 
occasionally  seen. 

8.  St.  John,  habited  in  priest^s  garments,  descends 
the  steps  of  an  altar  into  an  open  grave,  in  which  he 
lays  himself  down,  not  in  death,  but  in  sleep,  until  the 
coming  of  Christ ; being  reserved  alive  with  Enoch 
and  Elijah  (who  also  knew  not  death),  to  preach 
against  the  Antichrist  in  the  last  days.''  This  fanciful 
legend  is  founded  on  the  following  text : Peter,  see- 
ing the  disciple  whom  Jesus  loved  following,  saith  unto 
Jesus,  Lord,  and  what  shall  this  man  do  ? Jesus  saith 
unto  him.  If  I will  that  he  tarry  till  I come,  what  is 
that  to  thee  ? Then  went  this  saying  abroad  among 
the  brethren  that  that  disciple  should  not  die."  (John 
xxi.  21,  22.) 

The  legend  which  supposes  St.  John  reserved  alive 
has  not  been  generally  received  in  the  Church,  and  as 
a subject  of  painting  it  is  very  uncommon.  It  occurs 
in  the  Menologium  Graecum,^  where  the  grave  into 
which  St.  John  descends  is,  according  to  the  legend, 
fossa  in  crucis  figuram  " (in  the  form  of  a cross).  In 
a series  of  the  deaths  of  the  apostles,!  St.  John  is  as- 
cending from  the  grave ; for,  according  to  the  Greek 
legend,  St.  John  died  without  pain  or  change,  and  im- 
mediately rose  again  in  bodily  form,  and  ascended  into 
heaven  to  rejoin  Christ  and  the  Virgin. 

In  a small  and  very  curious  picture  which  I saw  at 
Rome,!  forming  part  of  a Predella,  there  is  a tomb 
something  like  the  Xanthian  tombs  in  form  : one  end 
is  open ; St.  John,  with  a long  gray  beard,  is  seen 
issuing  from  it,  and,  as  he  ascends,  he  is  met  by  Christ, 
the  Virgin,  St.  Peter,  and  St.  Paul,  who  are  descending 
from  above  ; while  figures  below  look  up  with  astonish- 

* Vatican  MSS.,  tenth  century, 
t MSS.,  ninth  century,  Paris  Nat.  Library, 

X Vatican,  Christian  Museum. 


172  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

ment.  On  the  ancient  doors  of  San  Paolo  he  is  lying 
in  an  open  grave  or  sarcophagus. 

Of  the  miracles  performed  by  John  after  his  death, 
two  are  singularly  interesting  in  the  history  of  art; 
both  have  been  treated  in  sculpture. 

9.  When  the  Empress  Galla  Placidia  was  returning 
from  Constantinople  to  Ravenna  with  her  two  children 
(a.  d.  425)  she  encountered  a terrible  storm.  In  her 
fear  and  anguish  she  vowed  a vow  to  St.  John  the 
Evangelist,  and,  being  landed  in  safety,  she  dedicated 
to  his  honor  a magnificent  church.  When  the  edifice 
was  finished,  she  was  extremely  desirous  of  procuring 
some  relics  of  the  Evangelist,  wherewith  to  consecrate 
his  sanctuary ; but  as  it  was  not  the  manner  of  those 
days  to  exhume,  and  buy  and  sell,  still  less  to  steal,  the 
bodies  of  holy  men  and  martyrs,  the  desire  of  the  pious 
empress  remained  unsatisfied.  However,  as  it  is  re- 
lated, St.  John  himself  took  pity  upon  her ; for  one 
night,  as  she  prayed  earnestly,  he  appeared  to  her  in  a 
vision ; and  when  she  threw  herself  at  his  feet  to  em- 
brace and  kiss  them,  he  disappeared,  leaving  one  of  his 
slippers  or  sandals  in  her  hand,  which  sandal  was  long 
preserved. 

The  antique  church  of  Galla  Placidia  still  exists  at 
Ravenna,  to  keep  alive,  after  the  lapse  of  fourteen  cen- 
turies, the  memory  of  her  dream,  and  of  the  condescen- 
sion of  the  blessed  apostle.  Not  much  of  the  original 
building  is  left;  the  superb  mosaics  have  all  disap- 
peared, except  a few  fragments,  in  which  may  be 
traced  the  storm  at  sea,  and  Galla  Placidia  making 
her  vow.  Over  the  principal  porch,  which  is  of  white 
marble,  in  the  Lombard  style,  and  richly  and  elegantly 
ornamented,  the  miracle  of  the  slipper  is  represented  in 
two  bas-reliefs,  one  above  the  other.  The  lower  com- 
partment, or  lunette,  represents  a tabernacle,  and  with- 
in it  an  altar  : St.  John  the  Evangelist  is  seen  offering 
incense ; on  the  other  side  is  Barbation,  the  confessor 
of  the  empress  ; she,  prostrate  at  the  feet  of  the  apostle. 


ST.  JOHN. 


173 


seems  to  take  off  his  sandal : on  each  side  are  six  hov- 
ering angels  bearing  the  implements  of  the  mass.  lu 
the  upper  compartment,  Galla  Placidia  is  seen  kneeling 
at  the  feet  of.  Christ,  and  offering  to  him  the  sacred 
sandal,  while  the  evangelist  stands  on  one  side,  and 
Barbation  on  the  other.  These  bas-reliefs  are  not 
older  than  the  twelfth  century,  and  are  in  excellent 
preservation  : I should  suppose,  from  the  style  of  the 
grouping,  that  they  were  copied,  or  imitated,  from  the 
older  mosaics,  once  in  the  interior  of  the  church. 

10.  The  other  miracle  has  the  rare  interest  of  being 
English  in  its  origin  and  in  its  representation.  « King 
Edward  the  Confessor  had,  after  Christ  and  the  Virgin 
Mary,  a special  veneration  for  St.  John  the  Evangelist. 
One  day,  returning  from  his  church  at  Westminster, 
where  he  had  been  hearing  mass  in  honor  of  the  evan- 
gelist, he  was  accosted  by  a pilgrim,  who  asked  of  him 
an  alms  for  the  love  of  God  and  St.  John.  The  king, 
who  was  ever  merciful  to  the  poor,  immediately  drew 
from  his  finger  a ring,  and,  unknown  to  any  one,  de- 
livered it  to  the  beggar.  When  the  king  had  reigned 
twenty-four  years,  it  came  to  pass  that  two  English- 
men, pilgrims,  returning  from  the  Holy  Land  to  their 
own  country,  were  met  by  one  in  the  habit  of  a pilgrim, 
who  asked  of  them  concerning  their  country ; and  be- 
ing told  they  were  of  England,  he  said  to  them,  < When 
ye  shall  have  arrived  in  your  own  country,  go  to  King 
Edward,  and  salute  him  in  my  name  ; say  to  him,  that 
I thank  him  for  the  alms  which  he  bestowed  on  me  in 
a certain  street  in  Westminster  ; for  there,  on  a certain 
day,  as  I begged  of  him  an  alms,  he  bestowed  on  me 
this  ring,  which  till  now  I have  preserved,  and  ye  shall 
carry  it  back  to  him,  saying  that  in  six  months  from 
'this  time  he  shall  quit  the  world,  and  come  and  remain 
with  me  forever.'  And  the  pilgrims,  being  astounded, 
said,  ‘ Who  art  thou,  and  where  is  thy  dwelling-place  ? ' 
And  he  answered,  saying,  < I am  John  the  Evangelist. 
Edward  your  king  is  my  friend,  and  for  the  sanctity 
of  his  life  I hold  him  dear.  Go  now,  therefore,  deliver 


J74  sacred  and  LEGENDARY  ART. 

to  him  this  message  and  this  ring,  and  I will  pray  to 
God  that  ye  may  arrive  safely  in  your  own  country/ 
When  St.  John  had  spoken  thus,  he  delivered  to  them 
the  ring,  and  vanished  out  of  their  sight.  The  pilgrims, 
praising  and  thanking  the  Lord  for  this  glorious  vision, 
went  on  their  journey ; and  being  arrived  in  England, 
they  repaired  to  King  Edward,  and  saluted  him,  and 
delivered  the  ring  and  the  message,  relating  all  truly. 
And  the  king  received  the  news  joyfully,  and  feasted 
the  messengers  royally.  Then  he  set  himself  to  pre- 
pare for  his  departure  from  this  world.  On  the  eve  of 
the  Nativity,  in  the  year  of  our  Lord  1066,  he  fell  sick, 
and  on  the  eve  of  the  Epiphany  following  he  died. 
The  ring  he  gave  to  the  Abbot  of  Westminster,  to  be 
forever  preserved  among  the  relics  there. * 

According  to  one  account, t the  pilgrims  met  the 
king  near  his  palace  at  Waltham,  at  a place  since 
called  Havering.  The  writer  adds,  “ In  allusion  to 
this  story.  King  Edward  II.  offered  at  his  coronation  a 
pound  of  gold  made  in  the  figure  of  a king  holding  a 
ring,  and  a mark  of  gold  (8  oz.)  made  like  to  a pilgrim 
putting  forth  his  hand  to  receive  the  ring.”  These 
must  have  been  two  little  statuettes  of  gold. 

The  legend  of  King  Edward  and  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist is  represented,  with  other  legends  of  the  same 
monarch,  along  the  top  of  the  screen  of  Edward  the 
Confessor's  chapel.  It  is  in  three  compartments.  The 
first  represents  King  Edward  bestowing  the  ring  on  St. 
John  in  the  disguise  of  a pilgrim  ; Westminster  Abbey 
is  seen  behind.  The  second  shows  us  the  meeting  of 
the  pilgrims  and  St.  John  in  Palestine ; he  holds  what 
seems  a palm.  In  the  third  the  pilgrims  deliver  the 
ring  to  King  Edward,  who  is  seated  at  table.  The 
sculpture  is  very  rude ; the  figures  disproportioned  and 
ungraceful.  They  are  supposed  to  be  of  the  time  of 
Henry  VI. 

* Johannis  BrcMoapton  Cronicop,  955. 

t Dart’s  Hist,  of  Westminster. 


ST,  JOHN, 


175 


The  same  legend  was  painted  on  one  of  the  windows 
of  Romford  church,  in  Essex,  but  whether  it  still  exists 
there  I know  not.* 

Before  I quit  the  subject  of  the  Evangelists,  it  is 
worth  while  to  observe  that,  in  Greek  Art,  not  only 
the  Four  Evangelists,  but  the  six  writers  of  the  Acts 
and  Epistles,  are  considered  as  a sacred  series.  In  an 
ancient  and  beautiful  MS.  of  the  Epistolce  Canoniche, 
presented  by  the  Queen  of  Cyprus  to  Pope  Innocent 
VIII.,  they  are  thus  represented,  two  and  two  to- 
gether : — 

St.  Euke,  with  a very  thoughtful,  earnest,  counte- 
nance, holds  a scroll,  on  which  is  written  in  Greek  the 
commencement  of  the  Acts,  **  The  former  treatise  have 
I made,  O Theophilus,*'  &c. ; and  St.  James,  with  a 
long,  very  earnest,  and  refined  face,  holds  a single  roll. 

St.  Peter,  with  a broad,  coarse,  powerful  physiog- 
nomy, strongly  characterized,  holds  two  rolls  ; and  St. 
John,  with  a long  and  very  refined  face,  gray  hair  and 
beard,  holds  three  rolls. 

St.  Jude,  with  a long  white  beard  and  very  aquiline 
nose,  holds  one  roll.  St.  Paul,  bald  in  front,  with  long 
brown  hair  and  beard,  and  a refined  face,  bears  many 
rolls  tied  up  together. 

All  the  figures  are  on  a gold  ground,  about  six 
inches  in  height,  very  finely  conceived,  though,  as  is 
usual  in  Byzantine  art,  formal  and  mechanical  in  ex- 
ecution. They  look  like  small  copies  of  very  grand 
originals.  The  draperies  are  all  classical ; a pale 
violet  or  brown  tunic  and  a white  mantle,  as  in  the  old 
mosaics ; the  rolls  in  their  hands  corresponding  with 
the  number  of  their  writings. 

* V.  Legend  of  St.  Edward  the  Confessor  in  the  “ Legends  of  the 

Monastic  Orders.** 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES. 


EXT  to  those  who  recorded  the  word  of  God 
were  those  called  by  Christ  to  the  task  of 
diffusing  his  doctrine,  and  sent  to  preach  the 

kingdom  of  heaven  through  all  nations.” 

Tlie  earliest  representations  of  the  Twelve  Apostles 
appear  to  have  been,  like  those  of  the  Four  Evange- 
lists, purely  emblematical : they  were  figured  as  twelve 
sheep,  with  Christ  in  the  midst,  as  the  Good  Shepherd 
bearing  a lamb  in  his  arms ; or,  much  more  frequently, 
Christ  is  himself  the  Lamb  of  God,  raised  on  an  emi- 
nence and  crowned  with  a cmciform  nimbus,  and  the 
apostles  were  ranged  on  each  side,  as  sheep.  Instances 
are  to  be  met  with  in  the  old  Christian  bas-reliefs.  In 
the  old  Roman  churches*  we  find  this  representation 
but  little  varied,  and  the  situation  is  always  the  same. 
In  the  centre  is  the  lamb  standing  on  an  eminence,  from 
which  flow  the  four  rivers  of  Paradise ; on  one  side  six 
sheep  issuing  from  the  city  of  Jerusalem,  on  the  other 
six  sheep  issuing  from  the  city  of  Bethlehem,  the  whole 
disposed  in  a line  forming  a sort  of  frieze,  just  below 
the  decoration  of  the  vault  of  the  apsis.  The  church 
of  S.  M.  Maggiore  exhibits  the  only  exception  I have 
met  with ; there  we  find  a group  of  sheep,  entering,  not 
issuing  from,  the  gates  of  Jerusalem  and  Bethlehem : 

* Rome.  S.  M.  in  Trastevere.  S.  Prassede.  S.  Clemente.  S. 
Cecilia. 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES, 


^11 


in  this  case,  however,  the  sheep  may  represent  believers, 
or  disciples  in  general,  not  the  twelve  apostles.  Upon 
the  great  crucifix  in  the  apsis  of  San  Clemente,  at 
Kome,  are  twelve  doves,  which  appear  to  signify  the 
twelve  apostles. 

The  next  step  was  to  represent  the  apostles  as  twelve 
men  all  alike,  each  with  a sheep,  and  Christ  in  the  mid- 
dle, also  with  a sheep,  sometimes  larger  than  the  others. 
We  find  this  on  some  of  the  sarcophagi.^  Again^  a 
little  later,  we  have  them  represented  as  twelve  vener- 
able men,  bearing  tablets  or  scrolls  in  their  hands,  no 
emblems  to  distinguish  one  from  another,  but  their 
names  inscribed  over  or  beside  each.  They  are  thus 
represented  in  relief  on  several  ancient  sarcophagi  now 
in  the  Christian  Museum  in  the  Vatican,  and  in  several 
of  the  most  ancient  churches  at  Eome  and  Eavenna, 
ranged  on  each  side  of  the  Saviour  in  the  vault  of  the 
apsis,  or  standing  in  a line  beneath. 

But  while  in  the  ancient  Greek  types,  and  the  old 
mosaics,  the  attributes  are  omitted,  they  adhere  almost 
invariably  to  a certain  characteristic  individual  repre- 
sentation, which  in  the  later  ages  of  painting  was  wholly 
lost,  or  at  least  neglected.  In  these  eldest  types,  St. 
Peter  has  a broad  face,  white  hair,  and  short  white 
beard ; St.  Paul,  a long  face,  high  bold  forehead,  dark 
hair  and  beard ; St.  Andrew  is  aged,  with  flowing  white 
hair  and  beard ; St.  John,  St.  Thomas,  St.  Philip, 
young  and  beardless;  St.  James  Major  and  St.  James 
Minor,  in  the  prime  of  life,  short  brown  hair  and 
beard ; both  should  bear  a resemblance  more  or  less  to 
the  Saviour,  but  St.  James  Minor  particularly  : St. 
Matthew,  St.  Jude,  St.  Simon,  St.  Matthias,  aged,  with 
white  hair.  The  tablets  or  scrolls  which  they  carry  in 
their  hands  bear,  or  are  supposed  to  bear,  the  articles 
of  the  Creed.  It  is  a tradition  that,  before  the  apostles 
dispersed  to  preach  the  Gospel  in  all  lands,  they  assem- 
bled to  compose  the  declaration  of  faith  since  called  the 

* Bottari,  Tab.  xxviii. 

12 


1 78  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

Apostles’  Creed,  and  that  each  of  them  furnished  one 
of  the  twelve  propositions  contained  in  it,  in  the  fol- 
lowing order  : — St.  Peter  : Credo  in  Deum  Patrem  om- 
nipotentem,  creatorem  coeli  et  terrce.  St.  Andrew : Et  in 
Jesum  Christum  Filium  ejus  unicum,  Dominum  nostrum. 
St.  James  Major : Qui  conceptus  est  de  Spiritu  Sancto, 
natus  ex  Maria  Virgine.  St.  John : Passus  sub  Pontio 
Pilato,  crucijiocus,  mortuus  et  sepultus.  St.  Philip  : De- 
scqidit  ad  inferos,  tertia  die  resurrexit  a mortuis.  St. 
James  Minor ; Ascendit  ad  ccelos,  sedet  ad  dexteram  Dei 
Patris  omnipotentis.  St.  Thomas : hide  venturus  est  ju- 
dicare  vivos  et  mortuos.  St.  Bartholomew : Credo  in 
Spiritum  Sanctum.  St.  Matthew:  Sanctam  Ecclesiam 
Catholicam ; sanctorum  communionem.  St.  Simon : Re- 
missionem  pecatorum.  St.  Matthias  : Carnis  resurrection 
nem.  St.  Thaddeus  : Et  vitam  oeternam. 

The  statues  of  the  apostles  on  the  shrine  of  the  Vir- 
gin in  the  San  Michele  at  Florence  exhibit  a fine  ex- 
ample of  this  arrangement. 

In  later  times,  the  Apostles,  instead  of  being  disposed 
in  a line,  are  grouped  round  the  Saviour  in  glory,  or 
they  form  a circle  of  heads  in  medallions : as  statues, 
they  ornament  the  screen  in  front  of  the  altar,  or  they 
are  placed  in  a line  on  each  side  of  the  nave,  standing 
against  the  pillars  which  support  it.  From  the  sixth 
century  it  became  usual  to  distinguish  each  of  them  by 
a particular  emblem  or  attribute  borrowed  from  some 
circumstance  of  his  life  or  death.  Thus,  taking  them 
in  order,  according  to  the  canon  of  the  mass,  — 

St.  Peter  bears  the  keys  or  a fish. 

St.  Paul,  the  sword  : sometimes  two  swords. 

St.  Andrew,  the  transverse  cross. 

St.  James  Major,  the  pilgrim’s  staff. 

St.  John,  the  chalice  with  the  serpent ; sometimes 
the  eagle  also  : but  the  eagle,  as  I have  observed,  be- 
longs to  him  properly  only  in  his  character  of  Evan- 
gelist. 

St.  Thomas,  a builder’s  rule  : also,  but  more  seldom, 
a spear. 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES. 


179 


St.  James  Minor,  a club. 

St.  Philip,  the  staff  or  crosier,  surmounted  by  a 
cross  ; or  a small  cross  in  his  hand. 

St.  Bartholomew,  a large  knife. 

St.  Matthew,  a purse. 

St.  Simon,  a saw. 

St.  Thaddeus  (or  Jude),  a halberd  or  lance. 

St.  Matthias,  a lance. 

The  origin  and  meaning  of  these  attributes  will  be 
explained  presently  : meantime  it  must  be  borne  in 
mind  that,  although  in  sacred  art  the  apostles  are  al- 
ways twelve  in  number,  they  are  not  always  the  same 
personages.  St.  Jude  is  frequently  omitted  to  make 
room  for  St.  Paul.  Sometimes,  in  the  most  ancient 
churches  (as  in  the  Cathedral  of  Palermo),  St.  Simon 
and  St.  Matthias  are  omitted,  and  the  Evangelists  St. 
Mark  and  St.  Luke  figure  in  their  places.  The  Byzan- 
tine manual  published  by  Didron  omits  James  Minor, 
Jude,  and  Matthias  ; and  inserts  Paul,  Luke,  and  Mark. 
This  was  the  arrangement  on  the  bronze  doors  of  San 
Paolo-fuori-le-Mura  at  Rome,  executed  by  Byzantine 
artists  in  the  tenth  century,  and  now  destroyed. 

On  an  ancient  pulpit,  of  beautifub workmanship,  in 
the  Cathedral  of  Troyes,  the  arrangement  is  according 
to  the  Greek  formula.*  Thus,  — 


' . 

a -a  - 

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! S3  .S  a 

i c 

rs 

1 .’S  b s 

'^3  0 

lU  3 C ^ 

j> 

0 ! 

! CW  H 

1 a) 

GQ 

1 cd  GO  cd  GO 

•-5 

I cd  cd  cd  Gd 

in 

cQ  M 

ai  GQ  cQ  od 


Here,  John  the  Baptist  figures  in  his  character  of  angel 
or  messenger ; and  St.  Paul,  St.  Mark,  and  St.  Luke 
take  the  place  of  St.  James  Minor,  St.  Jude,  and  St. 
Matthias. 

* The  churches  in  the  eastern  provinces  of  France,  particularly 
in  Champagne,  exhibit  marked  traces  of  the  influence  of  Greek 
art  in  the  eleventh  and  twelfth  centuries. 


i8o  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


The  earliest  instance  of  the  Apostles  entering  into  a 
scheme  of  ecclesiastical  decoration,  as  the  consecrated 
and  delegated  teachers  of  a revealed  religion,  occurs  in 
the  church  of  San  Giovanni  in  Tonte  at  Ravenna.*  In 
the  centre  of  the  dome  is  the  Baptism  of  Christ,  repre- 
sented quite  in  the  classical  style ; the  figure  of  the 
Saviour  being  entirely  undraped,  and  the  Jordan,  sig- 
nified by  an  antique  river  god,  sedge-crowned,  and 
bearing  a linen  napkin  as  though  he  were  an  attendant 
at  a bath.  Around,  in  a circle,  in  the  manner  of  radii, 
are  the  twelve  apostles.  The  order  is,  — Peter,  An- 
drew, James,  John,  Philip,  Bartholomew,  Simon,  Jude, 
James  Minor,  Matthew,  Thomas,  Paul ; so  that  Peter 
and  Paul  stand  face  to  face  at  one  extremity  of  the 
circle,  and  Simon  and  Bartholomew  back  to  back  at  the 
other.  All  wear  pointed  caps,  and  carry  the  oblation 
in  their  hands.  Peter  has  a yellow  vest  and  white 
mantle ; Paul,  a white  vest  and  a yellow  mantle,  and 
so  all  round  alternately.  The  name  of  each  is  inscribed 
over  his  head,  and  without  the  title  Sanctus,  which, 
though  admitted  into  the  Calendar  in  449,  was  not 
adopted  in  works  of  art  till  some  years  later,  about  472. 

In  the  next  instance,  the  attributes  had  not  yet 
been  admitted,  except  in  the  figures  of  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul. 

Mosaic  (a.  d.  816).  Christ,  in  the  centre,  stands 
on  an  eminence ; in  one  hand  he  holds  an  open  book, 
on  which  is  inscribed  Pax  vobis.  St.  Peter,  with  the 
keys  and  a cross,  stands  on  the  right ; and  Christ, 
with  his  right  hand  points  to  the  cross.  St.  Paul  is  on 
the  left,  with  his  sword ; beyond,  there  are  five  apostles 
on  one  side,  and  four  on  the  other : in  all  eleven 
(Judas  being  properly  omitted).  Each  holds  a book, 
and  all  are  robed  in  white ; underneath  the  whole  is 
inscribed,  in  Latin,  the  words  of  our  Saviour,  Go  ye, 
and  teach  all  nations. On  the  arch  to  the  right, 
Christ  is  seated  on  a throne,  and  presents  the  keys  to 
St.  Peter,  who  kneels  on  one  side,  and  the  standard  to 

* A.  D.  451.  Ciampini,  Vet.  Mon.  p.  1,  c.  iv. 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES, 


i8i 

Constantine,  who  kneels  on  the  other  (alluding,  of 
course,  to  the  famous  standard).  On  the  arch  to  the 
left,  St.  Peter  is  throned,  and  presents  the  stole  to  Pope 
Leo  III.,  and  the  standard  to  Charlemagne.  This 
singular  monument,  a kind  of  resume  of  the  power  of 
the  Church,  is  a restoration  of  the  old  mosaic,  executed 
by  order  of  Leo  III.  in  the  Triclinium  of  the  old  pal- 
ace of  the  Lateran,  and  now  on  one  side  of  the  Scala 
Santa,  the  side  facing  the  Porta  San  Giovanni. 

Mosaic,  in  the  old  basilica  of  St.  Paul  (a.  d.  1206). 
In  the  centre  an  altar  veiled,  on  which  are  the  Gospels 
(or  perhaps,  rather,  the  Book  of  Lifsy  the  seven-sealed 
book  in  the  Revelations)  and  the  instruments  of  the 
Passion.  Behind  it  rises  a large  Greek  cross,  adorned 
with  gold  and  jewels.  Underneath,  at  the  foot  of  the 
altar,  five  small  figures  standing  and  bearing  palms, 
representing  those  who  suffered  for  the  cause  of  Christ; 
and  on  each  side,  kneeling,  the  monk  Aginulph,  and 
Giovanni  Gaetano  Orsini,  afterwards  Nicholas  III. 
On  each  side  of  the  altar,  a majestic  angel : one  bears 
a scroll,  inscribed  Gloria  in  excelsis  Deo  ; the 
other,  Et  in  terra  pax  hominibus  bon^  volunta- 
tis. Beyond  these  the  apostles,  six  on  each  side,  bear- 
ing scrolls  with  the  articles  of  the  Creed.  They  are 
much  alike,  all  in  white  robes,  and  alternately  with 
each  stands  a palm-tree,  the  symbol  of  victory  and 
resurrection.  This  composition,  of  a colossal  size, 
formed  a kind  of  frieze  (taking  the  place  of  the  em- 
blematical lamb  and  twelve  sheep)  round  the  apsis  of 
the  Basilica. 

In  sculpture,  the  Apostles,  as  a series,  entered  into 
all  decorative  ecclesiastical  architecture  : sometimes  on 
the  exterior  of  the  edifice,  always  in  the  interior.  In 
our  English  cathedrals  they  are  seldom  found  unmuti- 
lated, except  when  out  of  the  reach  of  the  spoiler ; such 
was  the  indiscriminate  rage  which  confounded  the  ven- 
erable effigies  of  these  delegated  teachers  of  the  truth 
with  the  images  which  were  supposed  to  belong  exclu- 
sively to  the  repudiated  religion ! 


i82  sacred  and  legendary  art. 


Where  the  scheme  of  decoration  is  purely  theologi- 
cal, the  proper  place  of  the  Apostles  is  after  the  Angels, 
Prophets,  and  Evangelists ; but  when  the  7notif^  or 
leading  idea,  implies  a special  signification,  such  as  the 
Last  Judgment,  Paradise,  the  Coronation  of  the  Ma- 
donna, or  the  apotheosis  of  a saint,  then  the  order  is 
changed,  and  the  apostles  appear  immediately  after  the 
Divine  Personages  and  before  the  angels,  as  forming  a 
part  of  the  council  or  court  of  heaven;  — ‘‘When  the 
Son  of  Man  shall  come  in  his  glory,  ye  also  shall  sit 
on  twelve  thrones  judging  the  twelve  tribes  of  Israel/^* 
Such  is  the  arrangement  in  the  Campo  Santo,  in  An- 
gelico’s Paradiso  in  the  Florence  Gallery,  in  Raphael’s 
Disputa,  and  many  other  instances : and  I may  add 
the  architectural  treatment  on  the  fa9ade  of  Wells  Ca- 
thedral, where,  immediately  under  the  Saviour  sitting 
in  judgment,  stand  the  twelve  apostles,  and  beneath 
them  the  hierarchy  of  angels,  each  of  the  nine  choirs 
being  here  expressed  by  a single  angel.f  Therefore  to 
determine  the  proper  place  of  the  Apostles,  it  is  neces- 
sary to  observe  well  and  to  understand  what  has  been  the 
design  of  the  artist,  and  the  leading  idea  of  the  whole 
composition,  whether  strictly  theological  or  partly  scenic. 
In  all  monuments  which  have  a solemn  or  a sacred 
purpose,  — altars,  pulpits,  tombs,  — the  Apostles  find 
an  appropriate  place,  either  in  connection  with  other 
sacred  personages,  or  as  a company  apart,  — the  band 
of  teachers.  The  range  of  statues  along  the  top  of 
the  screen  in  front  of  the  choir  of  St.  Mark’s  at  Ven- 
ice will  be  remembered  by  all  who  have  seen  them : in 
the  centre  stand  the  Virgin  and  St.  Mark,  and  then  the 
Apostles,  six  on  each  side,  grand,  solemn  figures,  stand- 
ing there  as  if  to  guard  the  sanctuary.  These  are  by 
Jacobelli,  in  the  simple  religious  style  of  the  fifteenth 
century,  but  quite  Italian.  In  contrast  with  them,  as 

* Matt.  xix.  28  *,  and  Luke  xxii.  30. 

t I must  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  Cockerell’s  illustrations  and 
restorations  of  the  rich  and  multifarious  and  significant  sculpture 
of  Wells  Cathedral. 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLEa.  183 

the  finest  example  of  German  sculptural  treatment,  we 
have  the  twelve  apostles  on  the  tomb  of  St.  Sebald,  in 
his  church  at  Nuremberg,  cast  in  bronze  by  Peter  Vis- 
cher  (about  1500).  These  have  become  well  known  by 
the  casts  whicli  have  lately  been  brought  to  England ; 
they  are  about  two  feet  high,  all  remarkable  for  the 
characteristic  expression  of  the  heads,  and  the  grand 
simplicity  of  the  attitudes  and  draperies. 

There  are  instances  of  the  Apostles  introduced  into 
a scheme  of  ecclesiastical  decoration  as  devotional  fig- 
ures, but  assuming,  from  the  style  of  treatment  and 
from  being  placed  in  relation  with  other  personages,  a 
touch  of  the  dramatic  and  picturesque.  Such  are 
Correggio’s  Apostles  in  the  cupola  of  the  duomo  at 
Parma  (1532),  which  may  be  considered  as  the  most 
striking  instance  that  could  be  produced  of  studied  con- 
trast to  the  solemnity  and  simplicity  of  the  ancient 
treatment : here  the  motif  is  essentially  dramatic.  They 
stand  round  the  dome  as  spectators  would  stand  in  a 
gallery  or  balcony,  all  in  picturesque  attitudes,  studi- 
ously varied  (some,  it  must  be  confessed,  rather  extrav- 
agant), and  all  looking  up  with  amazement,  or  hope, 
or  joy,  or  adoration,  to  the  figure  of  the  glorified  Vir- 
gin ascending  into  heaven. 

Another  series  of  Apostles  in  the  San  Giovanni  at 
Parma,  which  Correggio  had  painted  earlier  (1522), 
are  conceived,  I think,  in  a finer  spirit  as  to  character, 
but,  perhaps,  not  more  appropriate  to  the  scene.  Here 
the  twelve  apostles  are  seated  on  clouds  round  the  glo- 
rified Saviour,  as  they  are  supposed  to  be  in  heaven  : 
they  are  but  partially  draped.  In  the  heads  but  little 
attention  has  been  paid  to  the  ancient  types,  except  in 
those  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul ; but  they  are  sublime 
as  well  as  picturesque  in  the  conception  of  character 
and  expression. 

The  Apostles  in  Michael  Angelo’s  Last  Judgment 
(a.  d.  1540)  exhibit  a still  further  deviation  from  the 
antique  style  of  treatment.  They  stand  on  each  side 
of  the  Saviour,  who  is  not,  here.  Saviour  and  Eedeem- 


1 84  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


er,  but  inexorable  Judge.  They  are  grandly  and  arti- 
ficially grouped,  all  without  any  drapery  whatever,  and 
with  forms  and  attitudes  which  recall  an  assemblage  of 
Titans  holding  a council  of  war,  rather  than  the  glori- 
fied companions  of  Christ.  In  early  pictures  of  Christ 
in  glory,  the  apostles,  his  companions  in  heaven  as  on 
earth,  form,  with  the  patriarchs  and  prophets,  the  celes- 
tial court  or  council : they  sit  upon  thrones  to  the  right 
and  to  the  left.*  RaphaeFs  Disputa  in  the  Vatican 
is  a grand  example  of  this  arrangement. 

Sets  of  the  Apostles  in  devotional  pictures  and 
prints  are  so  common,  that  I shall  particularize  only  a 
few  among  the  most  interesting  and  celebrated.  En- 
gravings of  these  can  easily  be  referred  to. 

1 . A set  by  Raphael,  engraved  by  Marc  Antonio : 
grand,  graceful  figures,  and  each  with  his  appropriate 
attribute.  Though  admirably  distinguished  in  form 
and  bearing,  very  little  attention  has  been  paid  to  the 
ancient  types,  except  perhaps  in  St.  Peter  and  St. 
John.  Here  St.  James  Minor  is  omitted  to  make 
room  for  St.  Paul. 

2.  A set  by  Lucas  van  Leyden,  smaller  than  Ra- 
phael’s, but  magnificent  in  feeling  : here  also  the  an- 
cient types  are  for  the  most  part  neglected.  These 
two  sets  should  be  compared  as  perfect  examples  of 
the  best  Italian  and  the  most  characteristic  German 
manner.  Some  of  the  German  sets  are  very  curious 
and  grotesque. 

3.  By  H.  S.  Behamf,  a most  curious  set  in  what 
may  be  called  the  ultra  German  style  : they  stand  two 
and  two  together,  like  a procession  of  old  beggars ; the 
workmanship  exquisite.  Another  set  by  Beham,  in 
which  the  figures  stand  singly,  and  which  includes  the 
Pour  Evangelists,  dressed  like  old  burgomasters,  with 
the  emblematical  wings,  has  been  already  mentioned. 

4.  A set  by  Parmigiano,  graceful  and  mannered,  as 
is  usual  with  him. 

5.  By  Agostino  Caracci.  This  set,  famous  as  works 


* Luke  xxii.  30. 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES.  185 

of  art,  must,  when  compared  with  those  of  Raphael 
and  Lucas  van  Leyden,  be  pronounced  absolutely  vul- 
gar. Here  St.  John  is  drinking  out  of  his  cup,  — an 
idea  which  might  strike  some  people  as  picturesque ; 
but  it  is  in  vile  taste.  Thaddeus  has  a saw  as  well  as 
Simon  ; Peter  has  the  papal  tiara  at  his  feet ; St.  James 
Minor,  instead  of  Thomas,  carries  the  buildePs  rule ; 
and  St.  Bartholomew  has  his  skin  thrown  over  his 
shoulders.  This  set  is  an  example  of  the  confusion 
which  prevailed  with  respect  to  the  old  religious  types 
and  attributes,  after  the  first  half  of  the  sixteenth 
century. 

6.  The  Five  Disciples,”  by  Albert  Diirer,  seem 
intended  to  form  part  of  a complete  set.  We  have  St. 
Paul,  St.  Bartholomew,  St.  Thomas,  St.  Philip,  and 
St.  Simon.  The  two  last  are  the  finest,  and  are  most 
grandly  conceived. 

These  are  examples  of  the  simplest  devotional  treat- 
ment. 

When  the  Apostles  are  grouped  together  in  various 
historical  scenes,  — some  Scriptural,  some  legendary, 
— they  are  more  interesting  as  individual  personages  ; 
and  the  treatment  should  be  more  characteristic.  Some 
of  these  subjects  belong  properly  to  the  life  of  Christ : 
as  the  Delivery  of  the  Keys  to  Peter ; the  Transfigura- 
tion ; the  Entry  into  Jerusalem  ; the  Last  Supper  ; the 
Ascension.  Others,  as  the  Death  and  Assumption  of 
the  Virgin,  will  be  considered  in  the  legends  of  the 
Madonna.  But  there  are  others,  again,  which  refer 
more  particularly  to  the  personal  history  of  the  Apos- 
tles, as  related  in  the  Acts  and  in  the  Legends. 

The  Descent  of  the  Holy  Ghost  was  the  first  and 
most  important  event  after  the  Ascension  of  Christ. 
It  is  thus  described  : When  the  day  of  Pentecost 
was  fully  come,  they  were  all  with  one  accord  in  one 
place.  And  suddenly  there  came  a sound  from  heaven, 
as  of  a rushing,  mighty  wind,  and  it  filled  all  the  house 
where  they  were  sitting.  And  there  appeared  unto 


1 86  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


them  cloven  tongues,  like  as  of  fire,  and  sat  upon  each 
of  them,  and  they  were  all  filled  with  the  Holy  Ghost, 
and  began  to  speak  with  other  tongues,  as  the  Spirit 
gave  them  utterance.  And  there  were  dwelling  at 
Jerusalem  Jews,  devout  men,  out  of  every  nation 
under  heaven.  Now  when  this  was  noised  abroad  the 
multitude  came  together,  and  were  confounded,  because 
that  every  man  heard  them  speak  in  his  own  language. 
. . . But  this  is  that  which  was  spoken  by  the  prophet 
Joel.”  (Acts  ii.  1-12,  16.) 

According  to  the  usual  interpretation,  the  word  they^ 
in  the  first  verse,  does  not  signify  the  apostles  merely, 
but  with  them,  “ the  women,  and  Mary  the  mother  of 
Jesus,  and  his  brethren  ” ; hence  in  so  many  represen- 
tations of*  this  subject  the  Virgin  is  not  only  present, 
but  a principal  person  : Mary  Magdalene  and  others 
are  also  frequently  introduced. 

1.  The  most  striking  example  I have  yet  met  with 
is  the  grand  mosaic  in  the  principal  dome  of  St.  Markus 
at  Venice.  In  the  apex  of  the  dome  is  seen  the  Celes- 
tial Dove  in  a glory  of  light ; rays  proceed  from  the 
centre  on  every  side,  and  fall  on  the  heads  of  the  Virgin 
and  the  twelve  apostles,  seated  in  a circle.  Lower 
down  is  a series  of  twelve  figures  standing  all  round 
the  dome  : “ Parthians,  Medes,  and  Elamites,  the  dwell- 
ers in  Mesopotamia,  Judica,  Cappadocio,  Pontus,  Asia, 
Phrygia,  Pamphylia,  Cretes,  and  Arabians,”  — each 
nation  represented  by  one  person,  and  all  in  strange 
dresses,  and  looking  up  with  amazement. 

2.  The  Twelve  Apostles  and  the  Virgin  are  seen 
above  seated  in  an  enclosure  ; tongues  of  fire  descend 
from  Heaven ; beneath  is  a closed  door,  at  which  sev- 
eral persons  in  strange  foreign  dresses,  with  turbans, 
&c.,  are  listening  with  amazement.  One  of  these  is  in 
the  Chinese  costume,  — a curious  circumstance,  consid- 
ering the  age  of  the  picture,  and  which  could  have  oc- 
curred at  that  date  nowhere  but  at  Venice.* 

3.  In  the  interior  of  a temple,  sustained  by  slender 

* Venice  Acad.,  fourteenth  century. 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES. 


187 


pillars,  the  Twelve  Apostles  are  seated  in  a circle,  and 
in  the  midst  the  Virgin,  tongues  of  fire  on  each  head. 
Here  the  Virgin  is  the  principal  person.^ 

4.  An  interior,  the  Twelve  Apostles  seated  in  a cir- 
cle ; above  them,  the  Celestial  Dove  in  a glory,  and 
from  his  beak  proceed  twelve  tongues  of  flame  ; under- 
neath, in  a small  arch,  is  the  prophet  Joel,  as  an  old 
man  crowned  with  a kingly  crown  and  holding  twelve 
rolls  or  scrolls,  indicating  the  Gospel  in  so  many  differ- 
ent languages.  The  allusion  is  to  the  words  of  Joel, 
ii.  28  : And  I will  pour  out  my  Spirit  upon  all 
flesh.'' t This  is  the  Greek  formula,  and  it  is  curious 
that  it  should  have  been  closely  followed  by  Pinturic- 
chio  ; — thus  : 

5.  In  a rich  landscape,  with  cypresses,  palm-trees, 
and  birds,  the  Virgin  is  seen  kneeling ; St.  Peter  on 
the  right,  and  James  Minor  on  the  left,  also  kneeling ; 
five  other  apostles  on  each  side.  The  Celestial  Dove, 
with  outspread  wings,  descends  in  a glory  surrounded 
by  fifteen  cherubim  : there  are  no  tongues  of  fire. 
The  prophet  Joel  is  seen  above,  with  the  inscription, 

Effundam  de  Spiritu  meo  super  omnem  camera.”  f 

6.  The  Virgin  and  the  Apostles  seated;  flames  of 
fire  stand  on  their  heads  ; the  Holy  Ghost  appears 
above  in  a glory  of  light,  from  which  rays  are  poured 
on  every  side.  Mary  Magdalene,  and  another  Mary, 
are  present  behind ; astonishment  is  the  prevailing  ex- 
pression in  every  face,  except  in  the  Virgin  and  St. 
Peter.  The  composition  is  attributed  to  Raphael.§ 

The  next  event  of  importance  is  the  separation  of  the 
Twelve  Apostles  when  they  disperse  to  preach  the  Gos- 
pel in  all  lands.  According  to  the  ancient  traditions, 
the  apostles  determined  by  lot  to  what  countries  they 
should  go  : Peter  went  to  Antioch ; James  the  Great 
remained  in  Jerusalem  and  the  neighborhood ; Philip 

* Rosini,  vol.  iii.  p.  75. 

t Convent  of  Chilandari,  Mount  Athos. 

J Vatican,  Sala  del  Pozzo.  § Vatican. 


1 88  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


went  to  Phrygia  ; John,  to  Ephesus  ; Thomas,  to 
Parthia  and  Judaea;  Andrew, *to  Scythia;  Bartholo- 
mew, to  India  and  Judaea.  The  Parting  of  the  Apostles 
is  a beautiful  subject,  of  which  I have  met  with  but 
few  examples ; one  is  a woodcut  after  Titian.  The 
Mission  of  the  Apostles  I remember  to  have  seen  by 
Bissoni  over  an  altar  in  the  Santa  Giustiua  at  Padua  : 
they  are  preparing  to  depart ; one  reads  from  a book  ; 
another  looses  his  shoes  from  his  feet,  in  allusion  to 
the  text,  Take  neither  purse  nor  scrip  nor  shoes  ” ; 
several  are  bidding  adieu  to  the  Virgin.  This  picture 
struck  me  as  dramatic ; its  merits  otherwise  I do  not 
remember. 

We  have  next  ^<The  Twelve  Baptisms.'^  ^ In  the 
upper  compartment  Christ  is  standing  in  a majestic 
attitude,  and  on  each  side  are  six  apostles,  all  alike, 
and  in  white  garments.  The  inscription  above  is  in 
Greek  : Go  ye,  and  preach  the  Gospel  to  all  nations.” 
Below,  in  twelve  smaller  compartments,  each  of  the 
apostles  is  seen  baptizing  a convert : an  attendant,  in 
white  garments,  stands  by  each  font  holding  a napkin. 
One  of  the  converts  and  his  attendant  are  black,  denot- 
ing clearly  the  chamberlain  of  the  Queen  of  Ethiopia. 
This  is  a very  uncommon  subject. 

And,  lastly,  we  have  The  Twelve  Martyrdoms.” 
This  is  a more  frequent  series,  in  pictures  and  in  prints, 
and  occurs  in  a set  of  large  fresco  compositions  in  the 
church  of  San  Nereo  e Sant’  Achilleo  at  Borne.  In 
such  representations  the  usual  treatment  is  as  follows  : 

1.  St.  Peter  is  crucified  with  his  head  downwards. 

2.  St.  Andrew,  bound  on  a transverse  cross.  3.  St. 
James  Major,  beheaded  with  a sword.  4.  St.  John,  in 
a caldron  of  boiling  oil.  5.  St.  Philip,  bound  on  a 
cross  in  the  form  of  a T.  6.  St.  Bartholomew,  flayed. 
7.  St.  Thomas  pierced  with  a spear.  8.  St.  Matthew, 
killed  mth  a sword.  9.  St.  James  Minor,  struck  down 

* Greek  MS.  ninth  century.  Paris,  Bibl.  du  Boi,  No.  510. 


THE  TWELVE  APOSTLES. 


189 

with  a club.  10.  St.  Simon  and  St.  Jude  together: 
one  is  killed  with  a sword,  the  other  with  a club.  11. 
St.  Matthias  has  his  head  cloven  by  a halbert.  12. 
St.  Paul  is  beheaded.* 

The  authority  for  many  of  these  martyrdoms  is 
wholly  apocryphal,!  and  they  sometimes  vary ; but 
this  is  the  usual  mode  of  representation  in  Western 
Art.  In  early  Greek  Art  a series  of  the  Deaths  of  the 
Apostles  often  occurs,  but  they  do  not  all  suffer  martyr- 
dom ; and  the  subject  of  St.  John  in  the  caldron  of 
boiling  oil,  so  famous  in  the  Latin  Church,  is,  I believe, 
unknown,  or,  at  least,  so  rare,  that  I have  not  found  it 
in  genuine  Byzantine  Art. 

The  most  ancient  series  I have  met  with  (in  a Greek 
MS.  of  the  ninth  century)  shows  us  five  apostles  cruci- 
fied : St.  Peter  and  St.  Philip  with  the  head  down- 
wards ; St.  Andrew  on  the  transverse  cross,  as  usual ; 
St.  Simon  and  St.  Bartholomew,  in  the  same  manner 
as  our  Saviour.  St.  Thomas  is  pierced  by  a lance ; 
and  St.  John  is  buried,  and  then  raised  by  angels, 
according  to  the  legend.  The  same  series,  similarly 
treated,  ornamented  the  doors  of  the  old  Basilica  of 
St.  Paul,  executed  by  Greek  artists  of  the  tenth  cen- 
tury.f 

Wherever  the  Apostles  appear  as  a series,  we  expect, 
of  course,  some  degree  of  discriminating  propriety  of 
character  in  each  face  and  figure.  We  seek  it  when 
they  merely  form  a part  of  the  general  scheme  of  sig- 
nificant decoration  in  the  architectural  arrangement  of 
a place  of  worship  ; we  seek  it  with  more  reason  when 
they  stand  before  us  as  a series  of  devotional  represen- 
tations ; and  still  more  when,  as  actors  in  some  particu- 

* A set  of  martyrdoms  is  in  the  Frankfort  Museum  ; another  is 
mentioned  in  Bartsch,  viii.  22. 

t Eusebius  says  that  all  the  apostles  suffered  martyrdom  5 but 
this  is  not  borne  out  by  any  ancient  testimony.  — Lardner's 
Cred.  of  Gospel  Hist.^  vol.  viii.  p.  81. 

J They  were  fortunately  engraved  for  D’Agincourt’s  Uistoire 
de  VArt^  before  they  were  destroyed  by  fire. 


190  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

lar  scene,  they  are  supposed  to  be  animated  by  senti- 
ments called  forth  by  the  occasion,  and  modified  by  the 
individual  character.  By  what  test  shall  we  try  the 
truth  and  propriety  of  such  representations  ? We  ought 
to  know  both  what  to  require  from  the  artist,  and  on 
what  grounds  to  require  it,  before  we  can  rest  satisfied. 

In  the  Gospel-histories  the  Apostles  are  consistently 
and  beautifully  distinguished  in  temper  and  bearing. 
Their  characters,  whether  exhibited  at  full  length,  or 
merely  touched  upon,  are  sustained  with  dramatic  truth. 
The  mediaeval  legends,  however  wild,  are,  as  far  as 
character  goes,  in  harmony  with  these  Scriptural  por- 
traits, and  fill  up  the  outline  given.  It  becomes,  there- 
fore, a really  interesting  speculation  to  observe  how  far 
this  variety  of  characteristic  expression  has  been  carried 
out  in  the  early  types,  how  far  attended  to,  or  neglected, 
by  the  great  painters,  since  the  revival  of  Art. 


St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul. 

Lat,  SS,  Petrus  et  Paulus.  Ital.  San  Pietro  or  Piero,  San  Paolo. 
Fr.  S.  Pierre,  S.  Paul.  Spa.  San  Pedro,  San  Paolo.  June  29 
and  30. 

I HAVE  already  observed  that,  as  apostles  and  preach- 
ers of  the  word,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  take  the  first 
place.  Even  during  their  lives,  a superiority  was  ac- 
corded to  them ; and  this  superiority,  as  the  acknowl- 
edged heads  and  founders  of  the  Christian  Church, 
under  Christ,  has  been  allowed  down  to  the  present 
time.  The  precedence  is  by  common  consent  given  to 
St.  Peter ; but  they  are  held  to  be  equal  in  faith,  in 
merit,  and  in  sanctity. 

The  early  Christian  Church  was  always  considered 
under  two  great  divisions  : the  church  of  the  converted 
Jews  and  the  church  of  the  Gentiles.  The  first  was 
represented  by  St.  Peter,  the  second  by  St.  Paul.  Stand- 
ing together  in  this  mutual  relation,  they  represent  the 
universal  Church  of  Christ ; hence  in  works  of  art  they 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


191 

are  seldom  separated,  and  are  indispensable  in  all  eccle- 
siastical decoration.  Their  proper  place  is  on  each  side 
of  the  Saviour,  or  of  the  Virgin  throned ; or  on  each 
side  of  the  altar ; or  on  each  side  of  the  arch  over  the 
choir.  In  any  case,  where  they  stand  together,  not 
merely  as  Apostles,  but  Founders,  their  place  is  next 
after  the  Evangelists  and  the  Prophets. 

Thus  seen  almost  everywhere  in  companionship,  it 
becomes  necessary  to  distinguish  them  from  each  other ; 
for  St.  Peter  does  not  always  bear  his  keys,  nor  St. 
Paul  his  sword.  In  the  earliest  examples,  these  attri- 
butes are  wholly  omitted ; yet  I scarcely  know  any  in- 
stance in  which  a distinct  type  of  head  has  not  been 
more  or  less  attended  to. 

The  ancient  Greek  type  of  the  head  of  St.  Peter, 
“ the  Pilot  of  the  Galilean  lake,^^  is  so  strongly  charac- 
terized as  to  have  the  air  of  a portrait.  It  is  either 
taken  from  the  description  of  Nicephorus,  so  often 
quoted,  or  his  description  is  taken  from  some  very  an- 
cient representation : it  certainly  harmonizes  with  all 
our  preconceived  notions  of  St.  Peter’s  temperament 
and  character.  He  is  a robust  old  man,  with  a broad 
forehead,  and  rather  coarse  features,  an  open,  undaunted 
countenance,  short  gray  hair  and  short  thick  beard, 
curled,  and  of  a silvery  white  : according  to  the  descrip- 
tive portrait  of  Nicephorus,  he  had  red,  weak  eyes, — a 
peeuliarity  which  it  has  not  been  thought  necessary  to 
preserve  in  his  effigies.  In  some  early  pictures  he  is 
bald  on  the  top  of  the  head,  and  the  hair  grows  thick 
around  in  a circle,  somewhat  like  the  priestly  tonsure ; 
and  in  some  examples  this  tonsure  has  the  form  of  a 
triple  row  of  curls  close  to  the  head,  a kind  of  tiara. 
A curious  exception  to  this  predominant,  almost  uni- 
versal, type  is  to  be  found  in  Anglo-Saxon  Art,^  where 
St.  Peter  is  always  beardless,  and  wears  the  tonsure; 
so  that  but  for  the  keys,  suspended  to  a ring  on  his 
finger,  one  might  take  him  for  an  elderly  monk.  It  is 
a tradition  that  the  Gentiles  shaved  the  head  of  St. 

* St.  Guthlac’s  Book.  Ethelwold’s  Benedictional. 


192  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

Peter  in  order  to  make  him  an  object  of  derision,  and 
that  this  is  the  origin  of  the  priestly  tonsure. 

The  dress  of  St.  Peter  in  the  mosaics  and  Greek 
pictures  is  a blue  tunic,  with  white  drapery  thrown  over 
it,  but  in  general  the  proper  colors  are  a blue  or  green 
tunic  with  yellow  drapery.  On  the  early  sarcophagi, 
and  in  the  most  ancient  church  mosaics,  he  bears  mere- 
ly a scroll  or  book,  and,  except  in  the  character  of  the 
head,  he  is  exactly  like  St.  Paul : a little  later  we  find 
him  with  the  cross  in  one  hand,  and  the  Gospel  in  the 
other.  The  keys  in  his  hand  appear  as  his  peculiar 
attribute  about  the  eighth  century.  I have  seen  him 
with  one  great  key,  but  in  general  he  carries  two  keys, 
one  of  gold  and  one  of  silver,  to  absolve  and  to  bind ; 
or,  according  to  another  interpretation,  one  is  of  gold 
and  one  of  iron,  opening  the  gates  of  heaven  and  hell : 
occasionally,  but  rarely,  he  has  a third  key,  expressing 
the  dominion  over  heaven  and  earth  and  hell.* 

St.  Paul  presents  a striking  contrast  to  St.  Peter,  in 
features  as  in  character.  There  mmst  have  existed 
effigies  of  him  in  very  early  times,  for  St.  Augustine 
sa3"s  that  a certain  Marcellina,  living  in  the  second  cen- 
tury, preserved  in  her  Lararium,  among  her  household 
gods  the  images  of  Homer,  Pythagoras,  Jesus  Christ, 
and  Paul  the  apostle.^^  Chrysostom  alludes  to  a por- 
trait of  Paul  which  hung  in  his  chamber,  but  unfortu- 
nately he  does  not  describe  it.  The  earliest  allusion  to 
the  personal  appearance  of  St.  Paul  occurs  in  Lucian, 
where  he  is  styled,  in  a tone  of  mocking  disparagement, 
‘^the  bald-headed  Galilean  with  a hook-nose. The 
description  given  by  Nicephorus,  founded,  we  may  pre- 
sume, on  tradition  and  on  the  existing  portraits,  has 
been  the  authority  followed  in  the  early  representations. 
According  to  the  ancient  tradition,  Paul  was  a man  of 
small  and  meagre  stature,  with  an  aquiline  nose,  a high 
forehead,  and  sparkling  eyes.  In  the  Greek  t3q)e  the 
face  is  long  and  oval,  the  nose  aquiline,  the  forehead 
high  and  bald,  the  hair  brown,  the  beard  long,  flowing 

* As  in  the  mosaic  on  the  tomb  of  Otho  11.  (Lateran  Mus.) 


ST,  PETER  AND  ST,  PAUL, 


193 


and  pointed,  and  of  a dark  brown  (in  the  Greek  for- 
mula it  is  said  that  his  beard  should  be  grayish  : I 
recollect  no  instance  of  St.  Paul  with  a gray  beard) ; 
his  dress  is  like  St.  Peter’s,  a blue  tunic  and  white 
mantle ; he  has  a book  or  scroll  in  one  hand,  sometimes 
twelve  rolls,  which  designate  his  epistles.  He  bears  the 
sword,  his  attribute  in  a double  sense ; it  signifies  the 
manner  of  his  martyrdom,  and  it  is  emblematical  of 
the  good  fight  fought  by  the  faithful  Christian,  armed 
with  ‘^the  sword  of  the  Spirit,  which  is  the  word  of 
God.”  (Ephes.  vi.  17.)  The  life  of  St.  Paul,  after  his 
conversion,  was,  as  we  know,  one  long  spiritual  com- 
bat : perplexed,  but  not  in  despair ; cast  down,  but 
not  destroyed.” 

These  traditional  characteristic  types  of  the  features 
and  persons  of  the  two  greatest  apostles  were  long  ad- 
hered to.  We  find  them  most  strictly  followed  in  tho 
old  Greek  mosaics,  in  the  early  Christian  sculpture,  and 
the  early  pictures ; in  all  which  the  sturdy  dignity  and 
broad  rustic  features  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  elegant  con- 
templative head  of  St.  Paul,  who  looks  like  a Greek 
philosopher,  form  a most  interesting  and  suggestive 
contrast.  But,  in  later  times,  the  old  types,  particular- 
ly in  the  head  of  St.  Paul,  were  neglected  and  degraded. 
The  best  painters  took  care  not  to  deviate  wholly  from 
the  square  head  and  short  gray  beard  of  St.  Peter; 
but,  from  the  time  of  Sixtus  IV.,  we  find  substituted 
for  the  head  of  St.  Paul  an  arbitrary  representation, 
which  varied  according  to  the  model  chosen  by  the 
artist,  — which  was  sometimes  a Roman  porter  or  a 
German  boor;  sometimes  the  antique  Jupiter  or  the 
bust  of  a Greek  rhetorician. 

I shall  now  give  some  examples,  in  chronological 
order,  of  the  two  great  apostles  represented  together,  as 
Founders  of  the  Church. 

On  the  early  sarcophagi  (from  A.  d.  321  to  400),  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  stand  on  each  side  of  the  Saviour. 
The  former  bears  a cross,  and  is  generally  on  the  left 
hand  of  Christ.  The  cross  given  to  Peter,  and  often 

13 


194  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

set  with  jewels,  is  supposed  to  refer  to  the  passage  in 
St.  John  xxi.  19,  Signifying  by  what  death  he 
should  die  ” : but  it  may  surely  bear  another  interpre- 
tation, i.  e.  the  spirit  of  Christianity  transmitted  to  all 
nations  by  the  first  and  greatest  of  the  apostles.  St. 
Paul  carries  a roll  of  writing ; he  has  a very  high  bald 
forehead : in  other  respects  the  two  apostles  are  not 
particularly  discriminated  ; they  wear  the  classical  cos- 
tume.^ Similar  figures  of  Peter  and  Paul  occur  on 
the  ancient  glass  drinking-vessels  and  lamps  preserved 
in  the  Vatican ; but  the  workmanship  is  so  rude,  that 
they  are  merely  curiosities,  and  cannot  be  cited  as 
authorities. 

Mosaic  (Rome,  a.  d.  443)  in  Santa  Maria  Maggiore, 
over  the  arch  which  separates  the  sanctuary  from  the 
nave.  We  have  in  the  centre  a throne,  on  which  lies 
the  roll,  sealed  with  seven  seals  ; above  the  throne  rises 
a cross  set  with  precious  stones ; on  each  side  of  the 
throne,  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul ; they  have  no  attributes, 
are  habited  in  classical  draperies,  and  the  whole  repre- 
sentation is  strictly  antique  in  style,  without  a trace  of 
any  of  the  characteristics  of  Mediaeval  Art.  This  is 
the  oldest  representation  I have  met  with  next  to  those 
on  the  sarcophagi. 

Mosaic  (Rome,  6th  century)  in  the  church  of  Santa 
Sabina  on  the  interior  of  the  arch  over  the  door.  We 
find  on  one  side  St.  Peter,  on  the  other  St.  Paul.  Un- 
der St.  Peter  stands  a graceful  female  figure,  veiled, 
and  inscribed  Ecclesiaex  circumcisione ; under  St.  Paul, 
a female  figure,  crowned,  and  inscribed  Ecclesia  ex  gen- 
tibus. 

Mosaic  (Rome,  a.  d.  526)  in  St.  Cosmo  and  St. 
Damian,  on  the  vault  of  the  apsis.  Christ  stands  in 
the  centre,  sustained  by  clouds  ; his  right  hand  is  raised 
in  the  attitude  of  one  who  exhorts  (not  blessing,  as  is 
the  usual  manner) ; the  left  hand  holds  the  book  of 
life ; at  his  feet  flows  the  river  Jordan,  the  symbol 
of  Baptism.  On  each  side,  but  lower  down  and  much 


♦ Bottari,  Tab.  xxv. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


195 


smaller  in  size,  stand  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul ; they  seem 
to  present  St.  Cosmo  and  St.  Damian  to  the  Saviour. 
Beyond  these  again,  on  either  side,  stand  St.  Theodore 
and  the  pope  (Felix  I.)  who  dedicated  the  church. 
Palm-trees,  and  a Phoenix  crowned  with  a starry  glory, 
emblems  of  Victory  and  Immortality,  close  this  majes- 
tic and  significant  composition  on  each  side.  Here  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  dignified  figures,  in  which  the 
Greek  type  is  strongly  characterized ; they  wear  long 
white  mantles,  and  have  no  attributes. 

Mosaic  (Milan,  9th  century)  in  Sant  Ambrogio. 
Christ  enthroned  presents  the  Gospel  to  St.  Paul,  and 
the  two  keys  to  St.  Peter. 

Mosaic  (a.  d.  936)  on  the  tomb  of  Otho  II.  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul  together,  rather  more  than  half 
length,  and  above  life  size.  St.  Peter  has  three  keys, 
suspended  on  a ring ; St.  Paul,  the  book  and  sword. 
The  original  mosaic  is  preserved  in  the  Vatican,  and  a 
copy  is  in  the  Lateran.  This  relic  is,  as  a document, 
invaluable. 

Mosaic  (a.  d.  1216  - 1227),  in  the  apsis  of  the  old 
basilica  of  St.  Paul.  Christ  is  seated  on  a throne, 

with  the  cruciform  glory  and  his  name  I C.  XC. : the 
right  hand  gives  the  benediction  in  the  Greek  form ; he 
holds  in  his  left  an  open  book,  inscribed  venite  bene- 

BICTI  PATRIS  MEI  PERCIPITE  REGNUM.  (Matt.  XXV. 

34.)  On  the  left,  St.  Peter  with  his  right  hand  raised 
to  Christ,  and  an  open  scroll  in  his  left  hand,  inscribed 
TU  Es  CHRiSTus  FI  LI  US  DEI  VI VI.  On  the  other  side 
of  Christ,  St.  Paul;  his  right  hand  on  his  breast,  and 
in  his  left  a scroll  with  these  words,  in  nomine  jesu 

OMNE  GENU  FLECTATUR  COELESTIUM  TERRESTRIUM 
ET  INFERNORUM.  (Phil.  xi.  10.)  Beyond  St.  Peter 
stands  his  brother  St.  Andrew ; and  beyond  St.  Paul 
his  favorite  disciple  Luke.  At  the  foot  of  the  throne 
kneels  a diminutive  figure  of  the  pope,  Honorius 
III.,  by  whom  the  mosaic  was  dedicated.  Palm- 
trees  close  the  composition  on  each  side ; underneath 


196  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

runs  the  frieze  of  the  Twelve  Apostles,  described  at 
p.  176. 

Mosaic  (12th  century)  in  the  Cathedral  of  Monreale 
at  Palermo.  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  seated  on 
splendid  thrones  on  each  side  of  the  tribune  ; St.  Peter 
holds  in  his  left  hand  a book,  and  the  right,  which  gives 
the  benediction,  liolds  also  the  two  keys : over  his  head 
is  inscribed  sanctus  petrus  princeps  apostolorum: 

CUI  TRADIT^  SUNT  CLAVES  REGNI  CCELORUM.  St. 

Paul  holds  the  sword  with  the  point  upwards  like  a 
sceptre,  and  the  book  as  usual : the  intellectual  Greek 
character  of  the  head  is  strongly  discriminated.  The 
inscription  is,  sanctus  paulus  prjedicator  verita- 

TIS  ET  DOCTOR  GENTIUM  GENTI. 

Among  the  rich  and  curious  bas-reliefs  in  front  of 
the  church  of  St.  Trophime  at  Arles,  we  have  St.  Peter 
and  St.  Paul  seated  together  receiving  the  souls  of  the 
just.  Each  has  two  souls  in  his  lap,  and  the  Archan- 
gel Michael  is  bringing  another. 

In  pictures,  their  proper  place,  as  I have  observed,  is 
on  each  side  of  the  throne  of  the  Redeemer,  or  on 
each  side  of  the  Virgin  and  Child : sometimes  they  are 
standing  together,  or  reading  in  the  same  book. 

This  must  suffice  for  the  devotional  treatment  of  St. 
Peter  and  St.  Paul,  when  represented  as  joint  founders 
and  patrons  of  the  universal  Christian  Church.  Before 
I notice  those  historical  subjects  in  which  they  appear 
together,  I have  to  say  a few  words  of  the  manner  in 
which  they  are  treated  separately  and  distinctly.  And 
first  of  St.  Peter. 

The  various  events  of  the  life  of  St.  Peter  are  re- 
corded in  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts  so  minutely,  that 
they  may  be  presumed  to  be  familiar  to  all  readers. 
From  these  we  may  deduce  his  character,  remarkable 
for  fervor  and  energy,  rather  than  sustained  power.  His 
traditional  and  legendary  history  is  full  of  incidents, 
miracles,  and  wonderful  and  picturesque  passages.  His 


ST,  PETER  AND  ST,  PAUL, 


197 


importance  and  popularity,  considered  as  Prince  of  the 
Apostles  and  Founder  of  the  Church  of  Rome,  have 
extended  with  the  influence  of  that  powerful  Church 
of  which  he  is  the  head  and  representative,  and  mul- 
tiplied, almost  to  infinitude,  pictures  and  effigies  of  him 
in  his  individual  character,  as  well  as  historical  repre- 
sentations of  his  life  and  actions,  wherever  his  para- 
mount dignity  is  admitted. 

It  struck  me,  when  wandering  over  the  grand  old 
churches  of  Ravenna,  where  the  ecclesiastical  mosaics 
are  the  most  ancient  that  exist,  and  still  in  wonderful 
preservation,  that  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  do  not  often 
appear,  at  least  are  in  no  respect  distinguished  from  the 
other  apostles.  Ravenna,  in  the  fifth  century,  did  not 
look  to  Rome  for  her  saints.  On  the  other  hand, 
among  the  earliest  of  the  Roman  mosaics,  St.  Peter  is 
sometimes  found  sustaining  the  throne  of  Christ,  with- 
out his  companion  St.  Paul ; as  in  S.  Maria-in-Traste- 
vere,  S.  Maria  Nuova,  and  others.  At  Rome,  St.  Peter 
is  the  Saint,  the  Santissimo.  The  secession  of  the  Prot- 
estant Church  dimmed  his  glory  as  Prince  of  the  Apos- 
tles and  universal  Saint ; he  fell  into  a kind  of  disrepute 
as  identified  with  the  See  of  Rome,  which  exposed  his 
effigies,  in  England  and  Scotland  particularly,  to  a 
sweeping  destruction.  Those  were  disputatious  days ; 
and  Peter,  the  affectionate,  enthusiastic,  devoted,  but 
somewhat  rash  apostle,  veiled  his  head  to  the  intellect- 
ual, intrepid,  subtle  philosopher  Paul. 

Let  us  now  see  how  Art  has  placed  before  us  the 
sturdy  Prince  of  the  Apostles. 

I have  already  mentioned  the  characteristic  type 
which  belongs  to  him,  and  his  prevalent  attributes,  — the 
key,  the  cross,  the  book.  When  he  figures  among  the 
disciples  in  the  Gospel  stories,  he  sometimes  holds  the 
fish  as  the  symbol  of  his  original  vocation : if  the  fish 
be  given  to  him  in  single  devotional  figures,  it  signifies 
also  Christianity,  or  the  rite  of  Baptism. 

The  figures  of  St.  Peter  standing,  as  Apostle  and 


198  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

Patron  Saint,  with  book  and  keys,  are  of  such  perpet- 
ual occurrence  as  to  defy  all  attempts  to  particularize 
them,  and  so  familiar  as  to  need  no  further  illustra- 
tion.^ 

Representations  of  him  in  his  peculiar  character  of 
Head  and  Founder  of  the  Roman  Church,  and  first 
universal  bishop,  are  less  common.  He  is  seated  on  a 
throne ; one  hand  is  raised  in  the  act  of  benediction ; 
in  the  other  he  holds  the  keys,  and  sometimes  a book  or 
scroll,  inscribed  with  the  text,  in  Latin,  “ Thou  art 
Peter,  and  on  this  rock  have  I built  my  Church.”  This 
subject  of  the  throned  St.  Peter  is  very  frequent  in  the 
older  schools.  The  well-known  picture  by  Giotto, 
painted  for  Cardinal  Stcfaneschi,  now  in  the  sacristy 
of  the  Vatican,  is  very  fine,  simple,  and  solemn.  In  a 
picture  by  Cima  da  Conegliano,t  St.  Peter  is  not  only 
throned,  but  wears  the  triple  tiara  as  pope ; the  coun- 
tenance is  particularly  earnest,  fervent,  almost  fiery  in 
expression  : the  keys  lie  at  his  feet ; on  one  side  stands 
St.  John  the  Baptist,  on  the  other  St.  Paul. 

As  a deviation  from  the  usual  form  of  this  sub- 
ject, I must  mention  an  old  bas-relief,  full  of  charac- 
ter, and  significantly  appropriate  to  its  locality,  — the 
church  of  San  Pietro-in-Vincoli,  at  Rome.  St.  Peter, 
enthroned,  holds  in  one  hand  the  keys  and  the  Gos- 
pel ; with  the  other  he  presents  his  chains  to  a kneel- 
ing angel : this  unusual  treatment  is  very  poetical  and 
suggestive. 

There  are  standing  figures  of  St.  Peter  wearing  the 
papal  tiara,  and  brandishing  his  keys,  — as  in  a picture 
by  Cola  delF  Amatrice.  And  I should  think  Milton 

* One  of  the  finest  I have  ever  seen  is  the  “ St.  Pierre  au  Dona- 
teur,”  by  Gaudenzio  Ferrari  5 holding  his  keys  (both  of  gold),  he 
presents  a kneeling  votary,  a man  of  middle  age,  who  probably 
bore  his  name.  The  head  of  St.  Peter  is  very  characteristic,  and 
has  an  energetic  pleading  expression,  almost  demanding  what  he 
requires  for  his  votary.  The  whole  picture  is  extremely  fine. 
(Turin  Gallery^  No.  19.) 

t Milan,  Brera.  (No.  189.) 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


199 

had  some  such  picture  in  his  remembrance  when  he 
painted  his  St.  Peter  : — 

“ Last  came  and  last  did  go 
The  pilot  of  the  Galilean  Lake  5 
Two  massy  keys  he  bore  of  metals  twain, 

(The  golden  opes,  the  iron  shuts  amain,) 

He  shook  his  mitred  locks,  and  stern  bespake.” 

When,  in  devotional  pictures,  St.  Peter  is  accompan- 
ied by  another  apostle  with  no  distinctive  attributes,  we 
may  suppose  it  to  be  St.  Mark,  who  was  his  interpreter, 
companion,  and  amanuensis  at  Pome.  According  to 
an  early  tradition,  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mark  was  written 
down  from  the  dictation  of  St.  Peter.^  In  a miniature 
frontispiece  to  St.  Markus  Gospel,  the  evangelist  is 
seated  writing,  and  St.  Peter  stands  opposite,  as  if  dic- 
tating. In  a picture  by  Angelico,!  Peter  is  preaching 
from  a pulpit  to  a crowd  of  people  : Mark,  seated  on 
one  side  is  diligently  taking  down  his  words.  In  a 
very  fine  picture  by  Bonvicino ! they  stand  together ; 
St.  Peter  is  reading  from  a book;  St.  Mark  holds  a 
scroll  and  inkhorn ; he  is  submitting  to  St.  Peter  the 
Gospel  he  has  just  penned,  and  which  was  afterwards 
confirmed  by  the  apostle. 

Lastly,  a magnificent  Venetian  picture  § represents 
St.  Peter  throned  as  bishop,  with  an  earnest  and  rather 
stern  countenance  ; he  holds  a book  in  his  hand ; two 
angels  with  musical  instruments  are  seated  on  the  steps 
of  his  throne : on  his  right  hand  stand  John  the  Bap- 

* “ What  St.  Clement  says  is  to  this  purpose  ; That  St.  Peter’s 
hearers  at  Rome  were  desirous  of  having  his  sermons  writ  down 
for  their  use  * * * §,  that  they  made  their  request  to  Mark  to  leave  them 
a written  memorial  of  the  doctrine  they  had  received  by  word  of 
mouth  ; that  they  did  not  desist  from  their  entreaties  till  they  had 
prevailed  upon  him  ; and  St.  Peter  confirmed  that  writing  by  his 
authority,  that  it  might  be  read  in  the  churches.”  — Lardner, 
Cred.,  vol.  i.  p.  250. 

t PI.  Gal. 

4:  Brera,  Milan. 

§ Gian  Bellini ; Venice.  S.  M.  de’  Prari. 


200  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


tist,  and  St.  Jerome  as  cardinal ; on  his  left  St.  Am- 
brose ; while  St.  Mark  bends  over  a book,  as  if  reading 
to  this  majestic  auditory. 

Those  scenes  and  incidents  related  in  the  Gospels  in 
which  St.  Peter  is  a principal  or  conspicuous  figure,  I 
shall  enlarge  upon  when  treating  of  the  life  of  Christ, 
and  will  only  indicate  a few  of  them  here,  as  illustrat- 
ing the  manner  in  which  St.  Peter  is  introduced  and 
treated  in  such  subjects. 

We  have,  first,  the  Calling  of  Peter  and  Andrew  in 
a picture  by  Basaiti,^  where  the  two  brothers  are  kneel- 
ing at  the  feet  of  the  Saviour ; the  fishing-boats  and  the 
Lake  of  Genesareth  in  the  background  : and  in  the 
beautiful  fresco  by  Ghirlandajo  in  the  Sistine  Chapel, 
where  a number  of  contemporary  personages  are  intro- 
duced as  spectators.  St.  Andrew  presenting  St.  Peter 
to  our  Saviour  (as  in  a picture  by  Cavalucci,  in  the  Vat- 
ican), is  another  version  of  the  same  subject ; or  St. 
Andrew  is  seen  at  the  feet  of  Christ,  while  St.  Peter  is 
sitting  on  the  edge  of  the  boat,  or  descending  from  it  in 
haste. 

“ Christ  walking  on  the  Sea  is  a familiar  and  pic- 
turesque subject,  not  to  be  mistaken.  The  most  ancient 
and  most  celebrated  representation  is  Giotto’s  mosaic 
(a.  d.  1298),  now  placed  in  the  portico  of  St.  Peter’s, 
over  the  arch  opposite  to  the  principal  door.  The  sen- 
timent in  the  composition  of  this  subject  is,  generally, 

Lord,  help  me ; or  I perish  ” : St.  Peter  is  sinking, 
and  Christ  is  stretching  out  his  hand  to  save  him. 
It  is  considered  as  a type  of  the  Church  in  danger, 
assailed  by  enemies,  and  saved  by  the  miraculous 
interposition  of  the  Eedeemer ; and  in  this  sense  must 
the  frequent  representations  in  churches  be  under- 
stood. 

In  the  Miraculous  Draught  of  Fishes,”  St.  Peter 
is  usually  on  his  knees  looking  up  with  awe  and  grati- 
tude : ‘‘  Depart  from  me,  O Lord ! for  I am  a sinful 


* Vienna  Gal. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


201 


man.”  The  composition  of  Raphael  (the  cartoon  at 
Hampton  Court)  is  just  what  we  should  seek  for  in 
Raphael,  a masterpiece  of  dramatic  expression,  — the 
Bignificant,  the  poetical,  the  miraculous  predominating. 
The  composition  of  Rubens,  at  Malines,  which  deserves 
the  next  place,  should  be  looked  at  in  contrast,  as 
an  instance  of  the  picturesque  and  vigorous  treatment 
equally  characteristic  of  the  painter ; — all  life  and  re- 
ality, even  to  the  glittering  fish  which  tumble  in  the 
net.  St.  Peter  finding  the  tribute  money,”  is  a sub- 
ject I have  seldom  met  with  : the  motif  is  simple,  and 
not  to  be  mistaken. 

In  all  the  scenes  of  the  life  of  our  Saviour  in  which 
the  apostles  are  assembled,  — in  the  Transfiguration,  in 
the  Last  Supper,  in  the  Washing  the  Feet  of  the 
Disciples,”  in  the  scene  of  the  agony  and  the  betrayal 
of  Christ,  — St.  Peter  is  introduced  as  a more  or  less 
prominent  figure,  but  always  to  be  distinguished  from 
the  other  apostles.  In  the  third  of  these  subjects,  the 
washing  of  the  feet,  St.  Peter  generally  looks  up  at 
Christ  with  an  expression  of  humble  expostulation,  his 
hand  on  his  head : the  sentiment  is,  Not  my  feet 
only,  but  my  hands  and  my  head.” 

In  the  scene  of  the  betrayal  of  Christ,  St.  Peter  cut- 
ting off  the  ear  of  Malchus  is  sometimes  a too  promi- 
nent group ; and  I remember  an  old  German  print  in 
which  St.  Peter  having  cut  off  the  ear,  our  Lord  bends 
down  to  replace  it.^ 

St.  Peter  denying  the  Saviour  ” is  always  one  of 
the  subjects  in  the  series  of  the  Passion  of  Christ.  It 
occurs  frequently  on  the  ancient  sarcophagi  as  the 
symbol  of  repentance,  and  is  treated  with  classical  and 
sculptural  simplicity,  the  cock  being  always  introduced : 
it  is  here  to  be  understood  as  a general  emblem  of  hu- 
man weakness  and  repentance.  As  an  action  separate- 
ly, or  as  one  of  the  series  of  the  life  and  actions  of  Pe- 
ter, it  has  not  been  often  painted ; it  seems  to  have 
been  avoided  in  general  by  the  early  Italian  painters  as 


* Bartsch,  vi.  92. 


202  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


derogatory  to  the  character  and  dignity  of  the  apostle. 
The  only  examples  I can  recollect  are  in  the  later  Ital- 
ian and  Flemish  schools.  Teniers  has  adopted  it  as  a 
vehicle  for  a guard-room  scene ; soldiers  playing  at 
cards,  bright  armor,  &c.  Rembrandt  has  taken  it  as 
a vehicle  for  a fine  artificial  light ; and,  for  the  same 
reason,  the  Caravaggio  school  delighted  in  it.  The 
maiden,  whose  name  in  the  old  traditions  is  Balilla,  is 
always  introduced  with  a look  and  gesture  of  reproach, 
and  the  cock  is  often  perched  in  the  background. 

Christ  turned  and  looked  upon  Peter  ” : of  this 
beautiful  subject,  worthy  of  Raphael  himself,  I can  re- 
member no  instance. 

The  ‘‘  Repentance  of  Peter  ” is  a subject  seldom 
treated  in  the  earlier  schools  of  Italy,  but  frequently  by 
the  later  painters,  and  particularly  by  the  Bologna 
school ; in  some  instances  most  beautifully.  It  was  a 
subject  peculiarly  suited  to  the  genius  of  Guercino,  who 
excelled  in  the  expression  of  profound  rather  than  ele- 
vated feeling. 

There  is  a manner  of  representing  the  repentance  of 
Peter  which  seems  peculiar  to  Spanish  Art,  and  is  more 
ideal  than  is  usual  with  that  school.  Christ  is  bound 
to  a column  and  crowned  with  thorns  ; St.  Peter  kneels 
before  him  in  an  attitude  of  the  deepest  anguish  and 
humiliation,  and  appears  to  be  supplicating  forgiveness. 
Except  in  the  Spanish  school,  I have  never  met  with 
this  treatment.  The  little  picture  by  Murillo*  is  an 
exquisite  example ; and  in  the  Spanish  Gallery  are 
two  others,  by  Pedro  de  Cordova  and  Juan  Juanes: 
in  the  former,  St.  Peter  holds  a pocket-handkerchief 
with  which  he  has  been  wiping  his  eyes,  and  the  cock 
is  perched  on  the  column  to  which  our  Saviour  is 
bound. 

Another  ideal  treatment  we  find  in  a picture  by 
Guercino ; St.  Peter  is  weeping  bitterly,  and  opposite 
to  him  the  Virgin  is  seated  in  motionless  grief. 

Half-length  figures  of  St.  Peter  looking  up  with  an 

* “ Le  Christ  i la  Colonne.”  Louvre^  550. 


ST,  PETER  AND  ST,  PAUL, 


203 


expression  of  repentant  sorrow,  and  wringing  his  hands, 
are  of  frequent  occurrence,  more  especially  in  the  later 
followers  of  the  Bologna  and  Neapolitan  schools  of  the 
seventeenth  century  : Ribera,  Lanfranco,  Caravaggio, 
and  Valentin.  In  most  of  these  instances,  the  total 
absence  of  ideal  or  elevated  sentiment  is  striking ; — 
any  old  bearded  beggar  out  of  the  streets,  who  could 
cast  up  his  eyes  and  look  pathetic,  served  as  a model. 

I recollect  no  picture  of  the  Crucifixion  in  which  St. 
Peter  is  present. 

“ The  delivery  of  the  keys  to  Peter  ” and  the 
Charge  to  Peter,^^  (Feed  my  sheep,)  either  in  separate  pic- 
tures or  combined  into  one  subject,  have  been  of  course 
favorite  themes  in  a Church  which  founds  its  authority 
on  these  particular  circumstances.  The  bas-relief  over 
the  principal  door  of  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome  represents 
the  two  themes  in  one  : Christ  delivers  the  keys  to 
Peter,  and  the  sheep  are  standing  by.  In  the  panels 
of  the  bronze  doors  beneath  (a.  d.  1431)  we  have  the 
chain  of  thought  and  incident  continued ; Peter  delivers 
the  emblematical  keys  to  Pope  Eugenius  IV. 

It  is  curious  that,  while  the  repentance  of  Peter  is  a 
frequent  subject  on  the  sarcophagi  of  the  fourth  cen- 
tury, the  delivery  of  the  keys  to  Peter  occurs  but  once. 
Christ,  as  a beardless  youth,  presents  to  Peter  two  keys 
laid  crosswise  one  over  the  other.  Peter,  in  whose 
head  the  traditional  type  is  most  distinctly  marked,  has 
thrown  his  pallium  over  his  outstretched  hands,  for, 
according  to  the  antique  ceremonial,  of  which  the  early 
sculpture  and  mosaics  afford  us  so  many  examples, 
things  .consecrated  could  only  be  touched  with  covered 
hands.  This  singular  example  is  engraved  in  Bottari.* 
An  example  of  beautiful  and  solemn  treatment  in  paint- 
ing is  Perugino’s  fresco  in  the  Sistine  Chapel.  It  con- 
tains twenty-one  figures ; the  conception  is  quite  ideal, 
the  composition  regular  even  to  formality,  yet  striking 


* Tab.  xxi. 


ao4  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


and  dramatic.  In  the  centre,  Peter  kneeling  on  one 
knee,  receives  the  keys  from  the  hand  of  the  Saviour ; 
the  apostles  and  disciples  are  arranged  on  each  side, 
behind  Christ  and  St.  Peter ; in  the  background  is  the 
rebuilding  of  the  Temple  ; — a double  allegory  : <<  De- 
stroy this  temple,  I will  build  it  up  in  three  days  ” : 
and  also,  perhaps,  alluding  to  the  building  of  the 
chapel  by  Sixtus  IV. 

In  RaphaeFs  cartoon*  the  scene  is  an  open  plain  : 
Christ  stands  on  the  right ; in  front,  St.  Peter  kneels, 
with  the  keys  in  his  hand  ; Christ  extends  one  hand  to 
Peter,  and  with  the  other  points  to  a flock  of  sheep  in 
the  background.  The  introduction  of  the  sheep  into 
this  subject  has  been  criticised  as  at  once  too  literal 
and  too  allegorical,  — a too  literal  transcript  of.  the 
words,  a too  allegorical  version  of  the  meaning ; *^]^t  I 
do  not  see  how  the  words  of  our  Saviour  could  have 
been  otherwise  rendered  in  painting,  which  must  speak 
to  us  through  sensible  objects.  The  other  apostles, 
standing  behind  Peter,  show  in  each  countenance  the 
different  manner  in  which  they  are  affected  by  the 
words  of  the  Saviour. 

By  Gian  Bellini : a beautiful  picture  :t  St.  Peter 
kneeling,  half  length,  receives  the  keys  from  Jesus 
Christ,  seated  on  a throne.  Behind  St.  Peter  stand 
the  three  Christian  graces.  Faith,  Hope,  and  Charity. 
Poussin  has  taken  this  subject  in  his  series  of  the  Seven 
Sacraments,  J to  represent  the  sacrament  of  Ordination. 
In  this  instance  again,  the  two  themes  are  united ; and 
we  must  also  remember,  that  the  allegorical  representa- 
tion of  the  disciples  and  followers  of  Christ  as  sheep 
looking  up  to  be  fed,  is  consecrated  by  the  practice  of 
the  earliest  schools  of  Christian  Art.  Rubens  has  ren- 
dered the  subject  very  simply,  in  a picture  containing 
only  the  two  figures,  Christ  and  St.  Peter ; § and  again 
with  flve  figures,  less  good.H  Numerous  other  exam- 

* Hampton  Court.  t Madrid  Gal.,  No.  114. 

f Bridgewater  Gal.  § Cathedral  at  Malines. 

II  Gal.  of  the  Hague. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


205 

pies  might  be  given  ; but  the  subject  is  one  that,  how- 
ever treated,  cannot  be  easily  mistaken. 

A very  ideal  version  of  this  subject  is  where  St. 
Peter  kneels  at  the  feet  of  the  Madonna,  and  the  Infant 
Christ,  bending  from  her  lap,  presents  the  keys  to  him ; 
as  in  a singularly  fine  and  large  composition  by  Crivelli,* 
and  in  another  by  Andrea  Salaino.  Another,  very  beau- 
tiful and  curious,  is  in  the  possession  of  Mr.  Bromley 
of  Wootten.f 

After  the  ascension  of  our  Saviour,  the  personal  his- 
tory of  St.  Peter  is  mingled  first  with  that  of  St.  John, 
and  afterwards  with  that  of  St.  Paul. 

“ Peter  and  John  healing  the  lame  man  at  the  gate 
called  Beautiful  is  the  subject  of  one  of  the  finest  of 
the  cartoons  at  Hampton  Court.  Perin  del  Vaga, 
Niccolo  Poussin,  and  others  less  renowned,  have  also 
treated  it ; it  is  susceptible  of  much  contrast  and  dra- 
matic effect. 

The  sick  are  brought  out  and  placed  in  the  shadow 
of  Peter  and  John  that  they  may  be  healed,'^  by  Ma- 
saccio.} 

Peter  preaching  to  the  early  converts  ” : the  two 
most  beautiful  compositions  I have  seen,  are  the  simple 
group  of  Masaccio  ; and  another  by  Le  Sueur,  full  of 
variety  and  sentiment. 

Peter  and  John  communicate  the  Holy  Ghost  by 
laying  their  hands  on  the  disciples,^^  by  Vasari.§  I do 
not  well  remember  this  picture. 

The  Vision  of  Peter  ; three  angels  sustain  the  curtain 
or  sheet  which  contains  the  various  forbidden  animals, 
as  pigs,  rabbits,  &c.  (as  in  a print  after  Guercino). 

Peter  baptizes  the  Centurion  ” (very  appropriately 

* This  picture,  formerly  in  the  Brera,  is  now  in  England,  in  the 
gallery  of  Lord  Ward.  It  is  the  finest  and  most  characteristic 
specimen  of  the  master  I have  ever  seen. 

t It  is  signed  Medula,  and  attributed  to  Giulio  della  Mendula  \ 
a painter  (except  through  this  picture)  unknown  to  me. 

} Brancacci  Chapel,  Florence.  § Berlin  Gal.,  313. 


2o6  b acred  and  legendary  art. 


placed  in  the  baptistery  of  the  Vatican).  St.  Peter 
meets  the  Centurion ; he  blesses  the  family  of  the 
Centurion.  All  commonplace  versions  of  very  inter- 
esting and  picturesque  subjects. 

The  Death  of  Ananias.^^  Raphael’s  cartoon  of 
this  awful  scene  is  a masterpiece  of  dramatic  and  scenic 
power ; never  w^as  a story  more  admirably  and  com- 
pletely told  in  painting.  Those  who  had  to  deal  with 
the  same  subject,  as  if  to  avoid  a too  close  comparison 
with  his  unapproachable  excellence,  have  chosen  the 
death  of  Sapphira  as  the  motif:  as,  for  example, 
Niccolb  Poussin.* 

Dorcas  or  Tabitha  restored  to  life.”  One  of  the 
finest  and  most  effective  of  Guercino’s  pictures,  now  in 
the  Palazzo  Pitti : the  simple  dignity  of  the  apostle, 
and  the  look  of  sick  amazement  in  the  face  of  the 
woman  restored  to  consciousness,  show  how  strong 
Guercino  could  be  when  he  had  to  deal  with  natural 
emotions  of  no  elevated  kind.  The  same  subject,  by 
Costanzi,  is  among  the  great  mosaics  in  St.  Peter’s. 

The  Death  of  Dorcas,”  by  Le  Sueur,  is  a beautiful 
composition.  She  lies  extended  on  a couch  ; St.  Peter 
and  two  other  apostles  approach  the  foot  of  it : the  poor 
widows,  weeping,  show  to  St.  Peter  the  garments  which 
Dorcas  had  made  for  them.  (Acts  ix.  39.) 

The  imprisonment  of  Peter,  and  his  deliverance  by 
the  Angel,  were  incidents  so  important,  and  offer  such 
obvious  points  of  dramatic  effect,  that  they  have  been 
treated  in  every  possible  variety  of  style  and  sentiment, 
from  the  simple  formality  of  the  early  mosaics,  where 
the  two  figures  — Peter  sitting  on  a stool,  leaning  his 
head  on  his  hand,  and  the  Angel  at  his  side  — express 
the  story  like  a vision,!  down  to  the  scenic  and  archi- 
tectural compositions  of  Steenwick,  where,  amid  a vast 
perspective  of  gloomy  vaults  and  pillars,  a diminutive 

* Louvre,  685. 

t As  in  the  Greek  mosaics  in  the  Cathedral  of  Monreale,  near 
Palermo. 


ST,  PETER  AND  ST  PAUL. 


207 


St.  Peter,  with  an  Angel  or  a sentinel  placed  some- 
where in  the  foreground,  just  serves  to  give  the  picture 
a name.* 

Some  examples  of  this  subject  are  of  great  ce- 
lebrity. 

Masaccio,  in  the  frescos  of  the  Brancacci  Chapel, 
has  represented  Peter  in  prison,  looking  through  his 
grated  window,  and  Paul  outside  communing  with 
him.  (The  noble  figure  of  St.  Paul  in  this  fresco  was 
imitated  by  Raphael  in  the  “ St.  Paul  preaching  at 
Athens.^’)  In  the  next  compartment  of  the  series, 
Masaccio  has  given  us  the  Angel  leading  forth  Peter, 
while  the  guard  sleeps  at  the  door  : he  sleeps  as  one 
oppressed  with  an  unnatural  sleep.  Rapliael’s  fresco 
in  the  Vatican  is  not  one  of  his  best,  but  he  has  seized 
on  the  obvious  point  of  effect,  both  as  to  light  and 
grouping  ; and  we  have  three  separate  moments  of  the 
same  incident,  which  yet  combine  most  happily  into  one 
grand  scene.  Thus  in  the  centre,  over  the  window,  we 
see  through  a grating  the  interior  of  the  prison,  where 
St.  Peter  is  sleeping  between  two  guards,  who,  leaning 
on  their  weapons,  are  sunk  in  a deep  charmed  slumber ; t 
an  angel,  whose  celestial  radiance  fills  the  dungeon  with 
a flood  of  light,  is  in  the  act  of  waking  the  apostle  : on 
the  right  of  the  spectator,  the  angel  leads  the  apostle 
out  of  the  prison ; two  guards  are  sleeping  on  the 
steps  : on  the  left,  the  soldiers  are  roused  from  sleep, 
and  one  with  a lighted  torch  appears  to  be  giving  the 
alarm ; the  crescent  moon  faintly  illumines  the  back- 
ground. 

The  deliverance  of  St.  Peter  has  always  been  con- 
sidered as  figurative  of  the  deliverance  of  the  Church ; 
and  the  two  other  frescos  of  this  room,  the  Heliodorus 
and  the  Attila,  bear  the  same  interpretation.  It  is 

* Several  such  pictures  are  in  the  royal  collections  at  Windsor 
and  Hampton  Court. 

t Moore  makes  a characteristic  remark  on  this  fresco : he  is 
amazed  at  the  self-denial  of  the  painter,  who  could  cross  this  fine 
group  with  the  black  iron  bars  which  represent  the  prison. 


2o8  backed  and  legendary  art. 


worth  while  to  compare  this  dramatic  composition  of 
Raphael  with  others  wherein  the  story  is  merely  a 
vehicle  for  artificial  effects  of  light,  as  in  a picture  by 
Gerard  Honthorst  ; or  treated  like  a supernatural 
vision,  as  by  that  poet  Rembrandt. 

Those  historical  subjects  in  which  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  figure  together  will  be  noticed  in  the  life  of 
St.  Paul. 

I come  now  to  the  legendary  stories  connected  with 
St.  Peter ; — an  inexhaustible  source  of  popular  and 
pictorial  interest. 

Peter  was  at  Jerusalem  as  late  as  a.  d.  52  ; then  at 
Antioch  ; also  in  Babylon  : according  to  the  most  an- 
cient testimonies  he  was  at  Rome  about  a.  i>.  63  ; but 
the  tradition,  that  he  resided  as  bishop  in  the  city  of 
Rome  for  twenty-five  years,  first  related  by  Jerome, 
seems  questionable.^  Among  the  legendary  incidents 
which  marked  his  sojourn  in  Rome,  the  first,  and  the 
most  important,  is  the  story  of  Simon  Magus. 

Simon,  a famous  magician  among  the  Jews,  had 
astonished  the  whole  city  of  Jerusalem  by  his  won- 
derful feats ; but  his  inventions  and  sorceries  were 
overcome  by  the  real  miracles  of  Peter,  as  the  Egyp- 
tian magi  had  been  conquered  by  Aaron.  He  offered 
the  apostles  money  to  buy  the  secret  of  their  power, 
which  Peter  rejected  with  indignation.  St.  Augustine 
tells  us,  as  a characteristic  trait  of  the  fiery-spirited 
apostle,  that  if  he  had  fallen  on  the  traitor  Simon,  he 
would  certainly  have  torn  him  to  pieces  with  his  teeth.” 

* Some  Protestant  writers  have  set  aside  St.  Peter’s  ministry  at 
Rome  as  altogether  apocryphal ; but  Gieseler,  an  author  by  no 
means  credulous,  considers  that  the  historical  evidence  is  in  favor 
of  the  tradition,  (u.  Text-book  of  Eccles.  Hist.,  p.  53.)  This  is  the 
more  satisfactory,  because,  even  to  Protestants,  it  is  not  agreeable 
to  be  at  Rome  and  to  be  obliged  to  reject  certain  associations 
which  add  to  the  poetical  as  well  as  to  the  religious  interest  of 
the  place. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


209 


The  magician,  vanquished  by  a superior  power,  flung 
his  books  into  the  Dead  Sea,  broke  his  wand,  and  fled 
to  Borne,  where  he  became  a great  favorite  of  the  Em- 
peror Claudius,  and  afterwards  of  Nero.  Peter,  bent 
on  counteracting  the  wicked  sorceries  of  Simon,  fol- 
lowed him  to  Borne.  About  two  years  after  his  arrival 
he  was  joined  there  by  the  Apostle  Paul.  Simon 
Magus  having  asserted  that  he  was  himself  a god,  and 
could  raise  the  dead,  Peter  and  Paul  rebuked  his  im- 
piety, and  challenged  him  to  a trial  of  skill  in  presence 
of  the  emperor.  The  arts  of  the  magician  failed  ; Peter 
and  Paul  restored  the  youth  to  life  : and  on  many  other 
occasions  Simon  was  vanquished  and  put  to  shame  by 
the  miraculous  power  of  the  apostles.  At  length  he 
undertook  to  fly  up  to  heaven  in  sight  of  the  emperor 
and  the  people ; and,  crowned  with  laurel,  and  supported 
by  demons,  he  flung  himself  from  a tower,  and  ap- 
peared for  a while  to  float  thus  in  the  air  : but  St. 
Peter,  falling  on  his  knees,  commanded  the  demons  to 
let  go  their  hold,  and  Simon,  precipitated  to  the  ground, 
was  dashed  to  pieces. 

This  romantic  legend,  so  popular  in  the  middle 
ages,  is  founded  on  some  antique  traditions  not  wholly 
unsupported  by  historical  testimony. 

There  can  be  no  doubt  that  there  existed  in  the  first 
century  a Simon,  a Samaritan,  a pretender  to  divine 
authority  and  supernatural  powers ; who,  for  a time, 
had  many  followers ; who  stood  in  a certain  relation  to 
Christianity ; and  who  may  have  held  some  opinions 
more  or  less  similar  to  those  entertained  by  the  most 
famous  heretics  of  the  early  ages,  the  Gnostics.  Ire- 
naeus  calls  this  Simon  the  father  of  all  heretics.  All 
those,^^  he  says,  “ who  in  any  way  corrupt  the  truth,  or 
mar  the  preaching  of  the  Church,  are  disciples  and  suc- 
cessors of  Simon,  the  Samaritan  magician.^^  Simon 
gave  himself  forth  as  a god,  and  carried  about  with 
him  a beautiful  woman  named  Helena,  whom  he  repre- 
sented as  the  first  conception  of  his  — that  is,  of  the 
divine  — mind,  the  symbol  or  manifestation  of  that 

14 


210  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


portion  of  spirituality  which  had  become  entangled  in 
matter.* 

The  incidents  of  the  story  of  Simon  Magus  have 
been  often  and  variously  treated. 

1.  By  Quintin  Matsys  : Peter  refuses  the  offer  of 
Simon  Magus,  — Thy  money  perish  with  thee  ! ” 
Here  Peter  wears  the  mitre  of  a bishop  : the  picture 
is  full  of  coarse  but  natural  expression. 

2.  <<  Peter  and  Paul  accused  before  Nero  ” : the 
fresco  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel,  attributed  by  Kugler 
to  Filippino  Lippi,  is  certainly  one  of  the  most  perfect 
pieces  of  art,  as  a dramatic  composition,  which  we 
have  before  the  time  of  Raphael.  To  the  right  the 
emperor  is  seated  on  his  throne,  on  each  side  his  min- 
isters and  attendants.  The  countenances  are  finely 
varied  ; some  of  them  animated  by  attention  and  curi- 
osity, others  sunk  in  deep  thought.  The  two  apostles, 
and  their  accuser  Simon  Magus,  are  in  front.  Simon, 
a magnificent  figure,  who  might  serve  for  a Prospero, 
lays  his  hand  on  the  vest  of  Peter,  as  if  to  drag  him 
forward  ; Paul  stands  aside  with  quiet  dignity  ; Peter, 
with  a countenance  full  of  energetic  expression,  points 
contemptuously  to  the  broken  idol  at  his  feet.  For  the 
felicity  and  animation  with  which  the  story  is  told,  and 
for  propriety,  grace,  and  grandeur,  Raphael  has  not 
often  exceeded  this  picture. 

3.  Another  of  the  series  of  the  life  of  Peter  in  the 
Brancacci  Chapel  is  the  resuscitation  of  the  youth,  who 
in  the  legend  is  called  the  nephew  of  the  emperor ; a 
composition  of  numerous  figures.  In  the  centre  stands 
St.  Peter,  and  before  him  kneels  the  youth;  a skull  and 
a few  bones  are  near  him  — a naive  method  of  express- 
ing his  return  from  death  to  life.  The  variety  of  ex- 
pression in  the  countenances  of  the  assembled  specta- 
tors is  very  fine.  According  to  the  custom  of  the 
Florentine  school  at  that  time,  many  are  portraits  of 

* He  represented  her  as  a resuscitation  of  the  famous  Helen  of 
Troy,  which  is  said  to  have  suggested  to  Goethe  the  resuscitation 
of  Helena  in  the  second  part  of  Faust 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


2II 


distinguished  persons  ; and,  considering  that  the  fresco 
was  painted  at  a period  most  interesting  in  the  Floren- 
tine history  (a.  d.  1440),  we  have  much  reason  to  re- 
gret that  these  can  no  longer  be  discriminated. 

4.  ‘<The  Fall  of  Simon  Magus  is  a favorite  and 
picturesque  subject,  often  repeated.  A most  ancient 
and  most  curious  version  is  that  on  the  walls  of  the 
Cathedral  at  Assisi,  older  than  the  time  of  Giotto,  and 
attributed  to  Giunta  Pisano,  (a.  d.  1232.)  On  one 
side  is  a pyramidical  tower  formed  of  wooden  bars ; 
Peter  and  Paul  are  kneeling  in  front ; the  figure  of  the 
magician  is  seen  floating  in  the  air  and  sustained  by 
hideous  demons ; — very  dreamy,  poetical,  and  fanci- 
ful. In  Mr.  Ottley’s  collection  I saw  a small  ancient 
picture  of  the  same  subject,  very  curious,  attributed  to 
Benozzo  Gozzoli.  Raphaers  composition  in  the  Vati- 
can has  the  simplicity  of  a classical  bas-relief,  — a style 
which  does  not  appear  suited  to  this  romantic  legend. 
The  picture  by  L.  Caracci  at  Naples  I have  not  seen. 
Over  one  of  the  altars  of  St.  Peter  we  now  see  the 
great  mosaic,  after  Vanni’s  picture  of  this  subject ; a 
clever  commonplace  treatment : the  scene  is  an  amphi- 
theatre, the  emperor  above  in  his  balcony ; Peter  and 
Paul  in  front,  invoking  the  name  of  Christ,  and  Simon 
Magus  tumbling  headlong,  forsaken  by  his  demons ; in 
the  background  sit  the  vestals.  Battoni's  great  picture 
in  the  S.  Maria  degli  Angeli  at  Rome  is  considered 
his  best  production  ; it  is  full  of  well-studied  academic 
drawing,  but  scenic  and  mannered. 

The  next  subject  in  the  order  of  events  is  styled  the 
'‘Domine,  quo  vadis  After  the  burning  of 
Rome,  Nero  threw  upon  the  Christians  the  accusation 
of  having  fired  the  city.  This  was  the  origin  of  the 
first  persecution,  in  which  many  perished  by  terrible 
and  hitherto  unheard  of  deaths.  The  Christian  con- 
verts besought  Peter  not  to  expose  his  life,  which  was 
dear  and  necessary  to  the  well-being  of  all;  and  at 
length  he  consented  to  depart  from  Rome.  But  as 


212  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


he  fled  along  the  Appian  Way,  about  two  miles  from 
the  gates,  he  was  met  by  a vision  of  our  Saviour  travel- 
ling towards  the  city.  Struck  with  amazement,  he  ex- 
claimed, “ Lord  ! whither  goest  thou  V'  to  which  the 
Saviour,  looking  upon  him  with  a mild  sadness,  replied, 
go  to  Home  to  be  crucified  a second  time,'^  and  van- 
ished. Peter,  taking  this  for  a sign  that  he  was  to 
submit  himself  to  the  sufferings  prepared  for  him,  im- 
mediately turned  back,  and  re-entered  the  city.  Michael 
Angelo's  famous  statue,  now  in  the  church  of  S.  Maria- 
sopra-Minerva  at  Rome,  is  supposed  to  represent  Christ 
as  he  appeared  to  Peter  on  this  occasion ; and  a cast 
or  copy  of  it  is  in  the  little  church  of  Domine,  quo 
vadis  ? ” erected  on  the  spot  sanctified  by  this  mysteri- 
ous meeting. 

It  is  surprising  that  this  most  beautiful,  picturesque, 
and,  to  my  fancy,  sublime  legend  has  been  so  seldom 
treated ; and  never,  as  it  appears  to  me,  in  a manner 
worthy  of  its  capabilities  and  its  high  significance.  It 
is  seldom  that  a whole  story  can  be  told  by  two  figures, 
and  these  two  figures  placed  in  such  grand  and  dramat- 
ic contrast ; Christ  in  his  serene  majesty,  and  radiant 
with  all  the  glory  of  beatitude,  yet  with  an  expression 
of  gentle  reproach ; the  apostle  at  his  feet,  arrested  in 
his  flight,  amazed,  and  yet  filled  with  a trembling  joy ; 
and  for  the  background  the  wide  Campagna  or  the  tow- 
ering walls  of  imperial  Rome  ; — these  are  grand  ma- 
terials ; but  the  pictures  I have  met  with  are  all  inef- 
fective in  conception.  The  best  fall  short  of  the  sub- 
lime ideal ; most  of  them  are  theatrical  and  common- 
place. 

Raphael  has  interpreted  it  in  a style  rather  too  clas- 
sical for  the  spirit  of  the  legend  ; with  great  simplicity 
and  dignity,  but  as  Sifact,  rather  than  a vision  conjured 
up  by  the  stricken  conscience  and  tenderness  of  the 
affectionate  apostle.  The  small  picture  by  Annibal 
Caracci  in  our  National  Gallery  is  a carefully  finished 
academical  study  and  nothing  more,  but  may  be  re- 
ferred to  as  a fair  example  of  the  usual  mode  of  treat- 
ment. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


213 


Peter  returned  to  Pome,  persisted  in  his  appointed 
work,  preaching  and  baptizing ; was  seized  with  St. 
Paul  and  thrown  into  the  Mamertine  dungeons  under 
the  Capitol.  The  two  centurions  who  guarded  them, 
Processus  and  Martinian,  and  many  of  the  criminals 
confined  in  the  same  prison,  were  converted  by  the 
preaching  of  the  apostle ; and  there  being  no  water  to 
baptize  them,  at  the  prayer  of  St.  Peter  a fountain 
sprang  up  from  the  stone  floor ; which  may  be  seen  at 
this  day. 

The  Baptism  of  St.  Processus  and  St.  Martinian 
in  the  Dungeon,’’  by  Trevisani,  is  in  the  baptistery  of 
St.  Peter’s  at  Rome ; they  afterwards  suffered  for  the 
faith,  and  were  canonized.  In  the  same  church  is  the 
scene  of  their  martyrdom  by  Valentino  ; they  are  seen 
bound  and  stretched  on  a hurdle,  the  head  of  one  to 
the  feet  of  the  other,  and  thus  beaten  to  death.  The 
former  picture  — the  Baptism  — is  commonplace  ; the 
latter,  terrible  for  dark  and  effective  expression ; it  is 
just  one  of  those  subjects  in  which  the  Caravaggio 
school  delighted. 

A few  days  after  their  incarceration,  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul  were  condemned  to  death.  According  to  one 
tradition,  St.  Peter  suffered  martyrdom  in  the  Circus 
of  Caligula  at  the  foot  of  the  Vatican,  and  was  cruci- 
fied between  two  metse,  i.  e.  the  goals  or  terminse  in 
the  Circus,  round  which  the  chariots  turned  in  the  race  ; 
but,  according  to  another  tradition,  he  was  put  to  death 
in  the  court-yard  of  a barrack  or  military  station  on 
the  summit  of  Mons  Janicula,  where  the  church  of  San 
Pietro  in  Montoreo  now  stands  ; that  is,  on  an  eminence 
above  the  site  of  the  Circus  of  Caligula.  At  his  own 
request,  and  that  his  death  might  be  even  more  painful 
and  ignominious  than  that  of  his  Divine  Master,  he  was 
crucified  with  his  head  downwards. 

In  the  earliest  representations  I have  met  with,^  St. 
Peter  is  raised  on  the  cross  with  his  head  downwards, 

* MS.,  Vatican,  NOi  5409,  lOth  century. 


214  sacred  and  legendary  art. 

and  wears  a long  shirt  which  is  fastened  round  his 
ankles.  In  the  picture  of  Giotto,* * * §  the  local  circum- 
stances, according  to  the  first  tradition,  are  carefully 
attended  to  : we  have  the  cross  erected  between  the 
two  metae,  and  about  twenty  soldiers  and  attendants ; 
among  them  a woman  who  embraces  the  foot  of  the 
cross,  as  the  Magdalene  embraces  the  cross  of  the 
Saviour.  Above  are  seen  angels,  who  bear  the  soul 
of  the  martyred  saint  in  a glory  to  heaven.  Masac- 
cio’s composition  f is  very  simple ; the  scene  is  the 
court-yard  of  a military  stafion  (according  to  the  sec- 
ond tradition).  Peter  is  already  nailed  upon  a cross  ; 
three  executioners  are  in  the  act  of  raising  it  with  cords 
and  a pulley  to  suspend  it  against  a great  beam  of 
wood ; there  are  several  soldiers,  but  no  women,  pres- 
ent. In  Guido’s  composition  | there’  are  only  three 
figures,  the  apostle  and  two  executioners ; it  is  cele- 
brated as  a work  of  art,  but  it  appeared  to  me  most  in- 
effective. On  the  other  hand,  Pubens  has  gone  into 
the  opposite  extreme  ; there  are  only  three  persons,  the 
principal  figure  filling  nearly  the  whole  of  the  canvas  : 
it  is  full  of  vigor,  truth,  and  nature ; but  the  brutality 
of  the  two  executioners,  and  the  agony  of  the  aged 
saint,  too  coarsely  and  painfully  literal.  These  simple 
representations  of  the  mere  act  or  fact  should  be  com- 
• pared  with  the  fresco  of  Michael  Angelo,§  in  which  the 
event  is  evolved  into  a grand  drama.  Here  the  scene 
is  evidently  the  summit  of  the  Mons  Janiculum  : in  the 
midst  of  a crowd  of  soldiers  and  spectators,  St.  Peter 
lies  nailed  to  the  cross,  which  a number  of  men  are  ex- 
erting their  utmost  strength  to  raise  from  the  ground. 

The  legend  which  makes  St.  Peter  the  keeper  of  the 
gate  of  Paradise,  with  power  to  grant  or  refuse  admis- 
sion, is  founded  on  the  delivery  of  the  keys  to  Peter. 

* In  the  sacristy  of  the  Vatican. 

t In  the  Brancacci  Chapel  at  Florence. 

. J In  the  Gallery  of  the  Vatican. 

§ Vatican.  Capella  Paolina. 


ST,  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL, 


215 


In  most  of  the  pictures  which  represent  the  entrance  of 
the  blessed  into  Paradise  or  the  New  Jerusalem,  Peter 
stands  with  his  keys  near  the  gate.  There  is  a beauti- 
ful example  in  the  great  freseo  of  Simon  Memmi  in  the 
chapel  de'  Spagnuoli  at  Florence  : St.  Peter  stands  at 
the  open  portal  with  his  great  key,  and  two  angels 
crown  with  garlands  the  souls  of  the  just  as  they  enter 
joyously  hand  in  hand. 

The  legend  of  St.  Petronilla,  the  daughter  of  St. 
Peter  (in  French,  Sainte  Pernelle),  has  never  been 
popular  as  a subject  of  art,  and  I can  remember  no 
series  of  incidents  from  the  life  of  St.  Peter  in  which 
she  is  introduced,  exeept  those  in  the  Carmine  at  Flor- 
enee.  It  is  apparently  a Eoman  legend,  and  either 
unknown  to  the  earliest  artists,  or  neglected  by  them. 
It  is  thus  related  : — 

The  Apostle  Peter  had  a daughter  born  in  lawful 
wedlock,  who  accompanied  him  in  his  journey  from  the 
East.  Being  at  Borne  with  him,  she  fell  sick  of  a 
grievous  infirmity  which  deprived  her  of  the  use  of  her 
limbs.  And  it  happened  that  as  the  disciples  were  at 
meat  with  him  in  his  house,  one  said  to  him,  ‘ Master, 
how  is  it  that  thou,  who  healest  the  infirmities  of  others, 
dost  not  heal  thy  daughter  Petronilla  ? ' And  St.  Peter 
answered,  ^ It  is  good  for  her  to  remain  sick  ^ : but,  that 
they  might  see  the  power  that  was  in  the  word  of  God, 
he  commanded  her  to  get  up  and  serve  them  at  table, 
which  she  did  ; and  having  done  so,  she  lay  down  again 
helpless  as  before  ; but  many  years  afterwards,  being 
perfected  by  her  long  suffering,  and  praying  fervently, 
she  was  healed.  Petronilla  was  wonderfully  fair  ; and 
Valerius  Flaccus,  a young  and  noble  Boman,  who  was 
a heathen,  became  enamored  of  her  beauty,  and  sought 
her  for  his  wife  ; and  he  being  very  powerful,  she  feared 
to  refuse  him  ; she  therefore  desired  him  to  return  in 
three  days,  and  promised  that  he  should  then  carry  her 
home.  But  she  prayed  earnestly  to  be  delivered  from 
this  peril ; and  when  Flaccus  returned  in  three  days 


21 6 JSACBFI)  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


with  great  pomp  to  celebrate  the  marriage,  he  found 
her  dead.  The  company  of  nobles  who  attended  him 
carried  her  to  the  grave,  in  which  they  laid  her,  crowned 
with  roses  ; and  Flaccus  lamented  greatly.’^  ^ 

The  legend  places  her  death  in  the  year  98,  that 
is,  thirty-four  years  after  the  death  of  St.  Peter ; but 
it  would  be  in  vain  to  attempt  to  reconcile  the  dates 
and  improbabilities  of  this  story. 

St.  Peter  raising  Petronilla  from  her  sick-bed  is  one 
of  the  subjects  by  Masaccio  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel. 
The  scene  of  her  entombment  is  the  subject  of  a once 
celebrated  and  colossal  picture  by  Guercino  : the  copy 
in  mosaic  is  over  the  altar  dedicated  to  her  in  St. 
Peter’s  : in  front,  and  in  the  lower  part  of  the  picture, 
she  is  just  seen  as  they  are  letting  her  down  into  the 
grave,  crowned  with  roses  ; behind  stands  Flaccus  with 
a handkerchief  in  his  hand,  and  a crowd  of  spectators  : 
in  the  upper  part  of  the  picture  Petronilla  is  already  in 
Paradise,  kneeling,  in  a rich  dress,  before  the  feet  of 
Christ,  having  exchanged  an  earthly  for  a heavenly 
bridegroom.  This  great  picture  exhibits,  in  a surpass- 
ing degree,  the  merits  and  defects  of  Guercino ; it  is 
effective,  dramatic,  deeply  and  forcibly  colored,  and 
arrests  attention : on  the  other  hand,  it  is  coarse, 
crowded,  vulgar  in  sentiment,  and  repugnant  to  our 
better  taste.  There  is  a standing  figure  of  Petronilla 
in  the  Duomo  at  Lucca,  by  Daniel  di  Volterra,  very 
fine.t 

* V.  II  perfetto  Legendario. 

t There  was  an  oratory  in  the  church  of  the  Franciscans  at 
Varallo,  in  which  they  celebrated  a yearly  festival  in  honor  of  St. 
Petronilla.  While  Gaudenzio  Ferrari  was  painting  there  the  series 
of  frescos  in  the  chapel  of  the  crucifixion  on  the  Sacro  Monte,  he 
promised  to  paint  for  the  festival  an  efidgy  of  the  saint.  The  eve 
of  the  day  arrived,  and  still  it  was  not  begun : the  people  mur- 
mured, and  reproached  him,  which  he  affected  to  treat  jestingly  ; 
but  he  arose  in  the  night,  and  with  no  other  light  than  the  beams 
of  the  full  moon,  executed  a charming  figure  of  St.  Petronilla, 
which  still  exists.  She  stands  holding  a book,  a white  veil  over 
her  head,  and  a yellow  mantle  falling  in  rich  folds : she  has  no 


ST,  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


217 


The  life  of  St.  Peter,  when  represented  as  a series, 
generally  comprises  the  following  subjects,  commencing 
with  the  first  important  incident  after  the  Ascension  of 
Christ. 

1 . Peter  and  John  heal  the  lame  man  at  the  Beau- 
tiful Gate.  2.  Peter  heals  the  paralytic  Eneas.  3. 
Peter  raises  Tabitha.  4.  The  angel  takes  off  the 
chains  of  Peter.  5.  He  follows  the  angel  out  of  the 
prison.  6.  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  meet  at  Rome.  7. 
Peter  and  Paul  before  Nero  are  accused  by  Simon  Ma- 
gus. 8.  The  fall  of  Simon  Magus.  9.  The  crucifix- 
ion of  St.  Peter.  This  example  is  taken  from  the 
series  of  mosaics  in  the  Cathedral  of  Monreale,  at 
Palermo. 

The  fine  series  of  frescos  in  the  Brancacci  Chapel 
at  Florence  is  differently  arranged ; thus  : 1 . The  trib- 
ute-money found  in  the  fish  by  St.  Peter.  2.  Peter 
preaching  to  the  converts.  3.  Peter  baptizes  the  con- 
verts. In  this  fresco,  the  youth,  who  has  thrown  off 
his  garments  and  is  preparing  for  baptism,  is  famous 
as  the  first  really  graceful  and  well-drawn  undraped 
figure  which  had  been  produced  since  the  revival  of 
Art.  4.  Peter  and  John  heal  the  cripple  at  the  Beau- 
tiful Gate,  and  Petronilla  is  raised  from  her  bed.  5. 
Peter  in  his  prison  is  visited  by  Paul.  6.  Peter  deliv- 
ered by  the  angel.  7.  The  resuscitation  of  the  dead 
youth.  8.  The  sick  are  laid  in  the  way  of  Peter  and 
John,  “ that  at  the  least  the  shadow  of  Peter  passing 
by  might  overshadow  some  of  them.^^  9.  Peter  and 
John  distribute  alms  ; a dead  figure  lies  at  the  feet  of 
the  apostles,  perhaps  Ananias.  The  situation  of  the 

distinctive  emblem.  “ Gaudenzio  che  in  una  bella  notte  d’  estate 
dipinse  fra  ruvide  muraglie  una  Santa  tutta  grazia  e pudore  mentre 
un  pallido  raggio  di  luna  sbucato  dalla  frondosa  chioma  d’  albero 
dolcemente  gl’  irradia  la  fronte  calva  e la  barba  rossiccia,  presenta 
un  non  so  che  di  ideale  e di  romanzesco  che  veramente  rapisce.” 
— -Opere  di  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,  No.  21.  (Maggi,  Turin.  It  is  to 
be  regretted  that  in  this  valuable  work  neither  the  pages  nor  the 
plates  are  numbered.) 


21 8 BACKED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


fresco  is  very  dark,  so  that  it  is  difficult  to  distinguish 
the  action  and  expression  of  the  figures.  10.  Peter 
and  Paul  accused  before  Nero.  11.  The  crucifixion 
of  Peter. 

In  St.  Peter’s  at  Rome,  we  have  of  course  every 
scene  from  the  life  of  the  apostle  which  could  well  be 
expressed  by  Art ; but  none  of  these  are  of  great 
merit  or  interest : most  of  them  are  from  the  schools 
of  the  seventeenth  century. 

St.  Paul,  though  called  to  the  apostleship  after  the 
ascension  of  the  Saviour,  takes  rank  next  to  St.  Peter 
as  one  of  the  chief  witnesses  of  the  Christian  faith. 
Of  all  the  apostles  he  is  the  most  interesting ; the  one 
of  whose  personal  character  and  history  we  know  most, 
and  through  the  most  direct  and  irrefragable  testimony. 
The  events  of  his  life,  as  conveyed  in  the  Acts  and 
the  Epistles,  are  so  well  known,  that  I need  not  here 
particularize  them.  The  legends  connected  with  him 
are  very  few. 

The  earliest  single  figure  of  St.  Paul  to  which  I can 
refer  was  found  painted  on  the  walls  of  the  cemetery 
of  Priscilla,  near  Rome.*  He  stands,  with  outstretched 
arms,  in  the  act  of  prayer ; (in  the  early  ages  of  Chris- 
tianity the  act  of  supplication  was  expressed  in  the 
classical  manner,  that  is,  not  with  folded  hands,  but 
with  the  arms  extended ;)  he  has  the  nimbus  ; his  dress 
is  that  of  a traveller,  the  tunic  and  pallium  being  short, 
and  his  feet  sandalled,  perhaps  to  indicate  liis  many 
and  celebrated  travels ; perhaps,  also,  it  represents  Paul 
praying  for  his  flock  before  he  departed  from  Macedon 
to  return  to  Jerusalem  (Acts  xx.)  : over  this  ancient 
figure,  which,  though  ill  drawn,  is  quite  classical  in 
sentiment  and  costume,  is  inscribed  paulus  . pastor  . 
APOSTOLOS ; on  his  right  hand  stands  the  Good  Shep- 
herd, in  reference  to  the  title  of  pastor,  inscribed  over 
his  effigy.  Another  figure  of  St.  Paul,  which  appears 

* Second  or  third  century.  Bosio,  p.  519. 


ST,  PETER  AND  ST  PAUL, 


219 


to  be  of  later  date,  but  anterior  to  the  fifth  century, 
was  found  in  the  catacombs  at  Naples  : in  this  effigy 
he  wears  the  dress  of  a Greek  philosopher ; the  style 
in  which  the  drapery  is  worn  recalls  the  time  of  Ha- 
drian : he  has  no  nimbus,  nor  is  the  head  bald ; he  has 
sandals  on  his  feet : over  his  head  is  inscribed  his 
name,  Paulus  ; near  him  is  a smaller  figure  similarly 
draped,  who  offers  him  fruit  and  flowers  in  a vase ; 
probably  the  personage  who  was  entombed  on  the  spot. 

At  what  period  the  sword  was  given  to  St.  Paul  as 
his  distinctive  attribute  is  with  antiquaries  a disputed 
point ; certainly,  much  later  than  the  keys  were  given 
to  Peter.^  If  we  could  be  sure  that  the  mosaic  on  the 
tomb  of  Otho  II.,  and  another  mosaic  already  described, 
had  not  been  altered  in  successive  restorations,  these 
would  be  evidence  that  the  sword  was  given  to  St. 
Paul  as  his  attribute  as  early  as  the  sixth  century ; but 
there  are  no  monuments  which  can  be  absolutely  trusted 
as  regards  the  introduction  of  the  sword  before  the  end 
of  the  eleventh  century ; since  the  end  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  it  has  been  so  generally  adopted,  that  in  the 
devotional  effigies  I can  remember  no  instance  in  which 
it  is  omitted.  When  St.  Paul  is  leaning  on  the  sword, 
it  expresses  his  martyrdom ; when  he  holds  it  aloft,  it 
expresses  also  his  warfare  in  the  cause  of  Christ : when 
two  swords  are  given  to  him,  one  is  the  attribute,  the 
other  the  emblem ; but  this  double  allusion  does  not 
occur  in  any  of  the  older  representations.  In  Italy  I 
never  met  with  St.  Paul  bearing  two  swords,  and  the 
only  instance  I can  call  to  mind  is  the  bronze  statue 
by  Peter  Vischer,  on  the  shrine  of  St.  Sebald,  at  Nu- 
remberg. 

Although  devotional  representations  of  St.  Paul  sep- 
arate from  St.  Peter  and  the  other  apostles  occur  very 
rarely,  pictures  from  his  life  and  actions  are  commonly 
met  with  ; the  principal  events  are  so  familiar,  that 
they  are  easily  recognized  and  discriminated  even  by 

* V.  Miinter’s  Sinnbilder,  p.  35. 


220  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


the  most  unlearned  in  Biblical  illustration  : considered 
and  treated  as  a series,  they  form  a most  interesting 
and  dramatic  succession  of  scenes,  often  introduced 
into  the  old  churches ; but  the  incidents  chosen  are 
not  always  the  same. 

Paul,  before  his  conversion,  was  present  at  the  ston- 
ing of  Stephen,  and  he  is  generally  introduced  holding 
on  his  knees  the  garments  of  the  executioners.  In 
some  ancient  pictures,  he  has,  even  while  looking  on 
and  consenting  to  the  death  of  the  victim,  the  glory 
round  his  head,  as  one  who,  while  ‘‘breathing  out 
threatenings  and  slaughter  against  the  disciples  of  the 
Lord,^^  was  already  “ a chosen  vessel  to  bear  His  name 
before  the  Gentiles.”  But  in  a set  of  pictures  which 
relate  expressly  to  St.  Paul  the  martyrdom  of  Stephen 
is,  with  proper  feeling,  omitted,  and  the  series  generally 
begins  with  the  Conversion  op  Paul,  — in  his  char- 
acter of  apostle,  the  first  great  event  in  his  life.  An 
incident  so  important,  so  celebrated,  and  in  all  its  ac- 
cessories so  picturesque  and  dramatic,  has  of  course 
been  a frequent  subject  of  artistic  treatment,  even  as  a 
separate  composition.  In  some  of  the  old  mosaics, 
the  story  is  very  simply,  and  at  the  same  time  vividly, 
rendered.  In  the  earliest  examples,  St.  Paul  has  the 
nimbus  or  glory  while  yet  unconverted ; he  is  prostrate 
on  the  ground,  grovelling  on  his  hands  and  knees ; 
rays  of  light  fall  upon  him  out  of  heaven,  where  the 
figure  of  Christ,  half  length,  is  seen  emerging  from 
glory ; sometimes  it  is  a hand  only,  which  is  the  em- 
blem of  the  Almighty  Power ; two  or  four  attendants 
at  most  are  flying  in  terror.  It  is  not  said  in  Scripture 
that  St.  Paul  journeyed  on  horseback  from  Jerusalem 
to  Damascus  ; but  the  tradition  is  at  least  as  old  as 
the  time  of  Pope  Dalmasius  (a.  d.  384),  as  it  is  then 
referred  to.  St.  Augustine  says  he  journeyed  on  foot, 
because  the  Pharisees  made  a point  of  religion  to  go 
on  foot,  and  it  is  so  represented  in  the  old  Greek  mo- 
saics. The  expression,  “ It  is  hard  for  thee  to  kick 
against  the  pricks,”  has  been  oddly  enough  assigned  as 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


221 


a reason  for  placing  Paul  on  horseback ; * at  all  events, 
as  he  bore  a military  command,  it  has  been  thought 
proper  in  later  times  so  to  represent  him,  and  also  as 
surrounded  by  a numerous  cortege  of  attendants.  This 
treatment  admits,  of  course,  of  endless  variety,  in  the 
disposition  and  number  of  the  figures,  in  the  attitudes 
and  expression ; but  the  moment  chosen  is  generally 
the  same. 

1.  The  oldest  example  I can  cite,  next  to  the  Greek 
mosaics,  is  an  old  Italian  print  mentioned  by  Zani. 
Paul,  habited  as  a Roman  warrior,  kneels  with  his  arms 
crossed  on  his  breast,  and  holding  a scroll,  on  which  is 
inscribed  in  Latin,  “ Lord,  what  shall  I do  ? ” Christ 
stands  opposite  to  him,  also  holding  a scroll,  on  which 
is  written,  <<  Saul,  Saul,  why  persecutest  thou  me  1 
There  are  no  attendants.  Zani  does  not  give  the  date 
of  this  quaint  and  simple  version  of  the  story. 

2.  Raphael.  Paul,  habited  as  a Roman  soldier,  is 
lying  on  the  ground,  as  thrown  from  his  horse  ; he  looks 
upward  to  Christ,  who  appears  in  the  clouds,  attended 
by  three  child-angels  : his  attendants  on  foot  and  on 
horseback  are  represented  as  rushing  to  his  assistance, 
unconscious  of  the  vision,  but  panic  struck  by  its  effect 
on  him : one  attendant  in  the  background  seizes  by  the 
bridle  the  terrified  liorse.  The  original  cartoon  of  this 
fine  composition  (one  of  the  tapestries  in  the  Vatican) 
is  lost. 

3.  Michael  Angelo.  Paul,  a noble  figure,  though 
prostrate,  appears  to  be  struck  motionless  and  sense- 
less : Christ  seems  to  be  rushing  down  from  heaven 
surrounded  by  a host  of  angels  ; those  of  the  attend- 
ants who  are  near  to  Paul  are  flying  in  all  directions, 
while  a long  train  of  soldiers  is  seen  ascending  from 
the  background.  This  grand  dramatic  composition 
forms  the  pendant  to  the  Crucifixion  of  Peter  in  the 
Capella  Paolina.  It  is  so  darkened  by  age  and  the 
smoke  of  tapers,  and  so  ill  lighted,  that  it  is  not  easily 


* V.  Zani.  Enc.  delle  Belle  Arti. 


222  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


made  out ; but  there  is  a fine  engraving,  which  may  be 
consulted. 

4.  Another  very  celebrated  composition  of  this  sub- 
ject is  that  of  Rubens.*  Paul,  lying  in  the  foreground, 
expresses  in  his  attitude  the  most  helpless  and  grovel- 
ling prostration.  The  attendants  appear  very  literally 
frightened  out  of  their  senses  ; and  the  gray  horse 
snorting  and  rearing  behind  is  the  finest  part  of  the 
picture  : as  is  usual  with  Rubens,  the  effects  of  physi- 
cal fear  and  amazement  are  given  with  the  utmost 
spirit  and  truth  ; but  the  Scriptural  dignity,  the  super- 
natural terrors  of  the  subject,  are  ill  expressed,  and  the 
apostle  himself  is  degraded.  To  go  a step  lower,  Cuyp 
has  given  us  a Conversion  of  St.  Paul  apparently  for 
the  sole  purpose  of  introducing  horses  in  different  atti- 
tudes : the  favorite  dapple-gray  charger  is  seen  bound- 
ing off  in  terror  ; no  one  looks  at  St.  Paul,  still  less  to 
Christ  above,  — but  the  horses  are  admirable. 

5.  In  Albert  Diirer’s  print,  a shower  of  stones  is  fall- 
ing from  heaven  on  St.  Paul  and  his  company. 

6.  There  is  a very  curious  and  unusual  version  of 
this  subject  in  a rare  print  by  Lucas  van  Leyden.  It 
is  a composition  of  numerous  figures.  St.  Paul  is  seen, 
blind  and  bewildered,  led  between  two  men  ; another 
man  leads  his  frightened  charger ; several  warriors  and 
horsemen  follow,  and  the  whole  procession  seems  to  be 
proceeding  slowly  to  the  right.  In  the  far  distance  is 
represented  the  previous  moment,  — Paul  struck  down 
and  blinded  by  the  celestial  vision. 

**  Paul,  after  his  conversion,  restored  to  sight  by 
Ananias, as  a separate  subject,  seldom  occurs ; but  it 
has  been  treated  in  the  later  schools  by  Vasari,  by 
Cavallucci,  and  by  P.  Cortona. 

**  The  Jews  flagellate  Paul  and  Silas  ” ; I know  but 
one  picture  of  this  subject,  that  of  Nicolb  Poussin  : the 
angry  Jews  are  seen  driving  them  forth  with  scourges  ; 

* In  the  gallery  of  Mr.  Miles,  at  Leigh  Court. 


ST,  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


223 


the  Elders,  who  have  condemned  them,  are  seated  in 
council  behind  : as  we  might  expect  from  the  character 
of  Poussin,  the  dignity  of  the  apostles  is  maintained,  — 
but  it  is  not  one  of  his  best  pictures. 

'^Paul,  after  his  conversion,  escapes  from  Damas- 
cus ” ; he  is  let  down  in  a basket  (Acts  ix.  25)  : the 
incident  forms,  of  course,  one  of  the  scenes  in  his  life 
when  exhibited  in  a series,  but  I remember  no  separate 
picture  of  this  subject,  and  the  situation  is  so  ludicrous 
and  so  derogatory  that  we  can  understand  how  it  came 
to  be  avoided. 

The  ecstatic  vision  of  St.  Paul,  in  which  he  was 
caught  up  to  the  third  heaven.”  (2  Cor.  xii.  2.)  Paul, 
who  so  frequently  and  familiarly  speaks  of  angels,  in 
describing  this  event  makes  no  mention  of  them,  but  in 
pictures  he  is  represented  as  borne  upwards  by  angels. 
I find  * no  early  composition  of  this  subject.  The 
small  picture  of  Domenichino  is  coldly  conceived. 
Poussin  has  painted  the  Ravissement  de  St.  Paul  ” 
twice ; in  the  first,  the  apostle  is  borne  upon  the  arms 
of  four  angels,  and  in  the  second  he  is  sustained  by 
three  angels.  In  rendering  this  ecstatic  vision,  the 
angels,  always  allowable  as  machinery,  have  here  a 
particular  propriety ; Paul  is  elevated  only  a few  feet 
above  the  roof  of  his  house,  where  lie  his  sword  and 
book.  Here  the  sword  serves  to  distinguish  the  per- 
sonage ; and  the  roof  of  the  house  shows  us  that  it  is  a 
vision,  and  not  an  apotheosis.  Both  pictures  are  in  the 
Louvre. 

Paul  preaching  to  the  converts  at  Ephesus.”  In  a 
beautiful  Raffaelesque  composition  by  Le  Sueur,  the 
incident  of  the  magicians  bringing  their  books  of  sor- 
cery and  burning  them  at  the  feet  of  the  apostle  is  well 
introduced.  It  was  long  the  custom  to  exhibit  this 
picture  solemnly  in  Notre  Dame  every  year  on  the  1st 
of  May.  It  is  now  in  the  Louvre. 


224  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

« Paul  before  Felix/^  and  Paul  before  Agrippa/' 
Neither  of  these  subjects  has  ever  been  adequately- 
treated.  It  is  to  me  inconceivable  that  the  old  masters 
so  completely  overlooked  the  opportunity  for  grand 
characteristic  delineation  afforded  by  both  these  scenes, 
the  latter  especially.  Perhaps,  in  estimating  its  capa- 
bilities, we  are  misled  by  the  effect  produced  on  the 
imagination  by  the  splendid  eloquence  of  the  apostle ; 
yet,  were  another  Kaphael  to  arise,  I would  suggest  the 
subject  as  a pendant  to  the  St.  Paul  at  Athens. 

Paul  performs  miracles  before  the  Emperor  Nero  ” ; 
a blind  man,  a sick  child,  and  a possessed  woman  are 
brought  to  him  to  be  healed.  This,  though  a legendary 
rather  than  a Scriptural  subject,  has  been  treated  by  Le 
Sueur  with  Scriptural  dignity  and  simplicity.'^ 

“ The  martyrdom  of  St.  Paul  ” is  sometimes  a sepa- 
rate subject,  but  generally  it  is  the  pendant  to  the 
martyrdom  of  St.  Peter.  According  to  the  received 
tradition,  the  two  apostles  suffered  at  the  same  time, 
but  in  different  places ; for  St.  Paul,  being  by  birth  a 
Roman  citizen,  escaped  the  ignominy  of  the  public  ex- 
posure in  the  Circus,  as  well  as  the  prolonged  torture 
of  the  cross.  He  was  beheaded  by  the  sword  outside 
the  Ostian  gate,  about  two  miles  from  Rome,  at  a place 
called  the  Aqua  Salvias,  now  the  Tre  Eontane." 
The  legend  of  the  death  of  St.  Paul  relates  that  a cer- 
tain Roman  matron  named  Plautilla,  one  of  the  con- 
verts of  St.  Peter,  placed  herself  on  the  road  by  which 
St.  Paul  passed  to  his  martyrdom,  in  order  to  behold 
him  for  the  last  time ; and  when  she  saw  him,  she 
wept  greatly,  and  besought  his  blessing.  The  apostle 
then,  seeing  her  faith,  turned  to  her  and  begged  that 
she  would  give  him  her  veil  to  bind  his  eyes  when  he 
should  be  beheaded,  promising  to  return  it  to  her  after 
his  death.  The  attendants  mocked  at  such  a promise, 
but  Plautilla,  with  a woman's  faith  and  charity,  taking 
off  her  veil,  presented  it  to  him.  After  his  martyrdom, 
St.  Paul  appeared  to  her,  and  restored  the  veil  stained 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


225 


with  his  blood.  It  is  also  related,  that  when  he  was 
decapitated  the  severed  head  made  three  bounds  upon 
the  earth,  and  wherever  it  touched  the  ground  a foun- 
tain sprang  forth. 

In  the  most  ancient  representations  of  the  martyrdom 
of  St.  Paul,  the  legend  of  Plautilla  is  seldom  omitted. 
In  the  picture  of  Giotto  preserved  in  the  sacristy  of  St. 
Peter’s,  Plautilla  is  seen  on  an  eminence  in  the  back- 
ground, receiving  the  veil  from  the  hand  of  Paul,  who 
appears  in  the  clouds  above ; the  same  representation, 
but  little  varied,  is  executed  in  bas-relief  on  the  bronze 
doors  of  St.  Peter’s.  The  three  fountains  gushing  up 
beneath  the  severed  head  are  also  frequently  represented 
as  a literal  fact,  though  a manifest  and  beautiful  alle- 
gory, figurative  of  the  fountains  of  Christian  faith 
which  should  spring  forth  from  his  martyrdom. 

In  all  the  melancholy  vicinity  of  Rome,  there  is  not 
a more  melancholy  spot  than  the  Tre  Fontane.”  A 
splendid  monastery,  rich  with  the  offerings  of  all 
Christendom,  once  existed  there  : the  ravages  of  that 
mysterious  scourge  of  the  Campagna,  the  malaria,  have 
rendered  it  a desert ; three  ancient  churches  and  some 
ruins  still  exist,  and  a few  pale  monks  wander  about 
the  swampy  dismal  confines  of  the  hollow  in  which 
they  stand.  In  winter  you  approach  them  through 
a quagmire ; in  summer  you  dare  not  breathe  in 
their  pestilential  vicinity ; and  yet  there  is  a sort  of 
dead  beauty  about  the  place,  something  hallowed  as 
well  as  sad,  which  seizes  on  the  fancy.  In  the  church 
properly  called  San  Paolo  delle  Tre  Fontane,”  and 
which  is  so  old  that  the  date  of  the  foundation  is  un- 
known, are  three  chapels  with  altars  raised  over  as 
many  wells  or  fountains ; the  altars  are  modern,  and 
have  each  the  head  of  St.  Paul  carved  in  relief.  The 
water,  which  appeared  to  me  exactly  the  same  in  all 
the  three  fountains,  has  a soft  insipid  taste,  neither 
refreshing  nor  agreeable.  The  ancient  frescos  have 
perished,  and  the  modern  ones  are  perishing.  It  is  a 
melancholy  spot. 

15 


226  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


To  return,  however,  to  that  event  which  has  rendered 
it  for  ages  consecrated  and  memorable.  Among  the 
many  representations  of  the  decollation  of  St.  Paul 
which  exist  in  sculpture  and  in  painting,  I have  not 
met  with  one  which  could  take  a high  place  as  a work 
of  art,  or  which  has  done  justice  to  the  tragic  capabili- 
ties of  the  subject. 

After  his  martyrdom  the  body  of  St.  Paul  was  in- 
terred on  a spot  between  the  Ostian  gate  and  the  Aqua 
Salvias,  and  there  arose  the  magnificent  church  known 
as  San  Ydio\o-fuori-le-mura.  I saw  this  church  a few 
months  before  it  was  consumed  by  fire  in  1823  ; I saw 
it  again  in  1847,  when  the  restoration  was  far  advanced. 
Its  cold  magnificence,  compared  wdth  the  impressions 
left  by  the  former  structm^e,  rich  with  inestimable  re- 
mains of  ancient  art,  and  venerable  from  a thousand 
associations,  saddened  and  chilled  me. 

The  mosaics  in  the  old  church,  which  represented 
the  life  and  actions  of  St.  Paul,  were  executed  by  the 
Greek  mosaic  masters  of  the  eleventh  century.  They 
appear  to  have  comprised  the  same  subjects  which  still 
exist  as  a series  in  the  church  of  Monreale  near  Pa- 
lermo, and  which  I shall  now  describe. 

1.  Saul  is  sent  by  the  high-priest  to  Damascus. 
Two  priests  are  seated  on  a raised  throne  in  front  of 
the  Temple  ; Saul  stands  before  them. 

2.  The  Conversion  of  Saul,  as  already  described. 

3.  Saul,  being  blind,  is  led  by  his  attendants  to  the 
gate  of  Damascus. 

4.  Saul  seated.  Ananias  enters  and  addresses  him. 

5.  Paul  is  baptized  : he  is  standing,  or  rather  sitting, 
in  a font,  which  is  a large  vase,  and  not  much  larger 
in  proportion  than  a punch-bowl. 

6.  St.  Paul  disputes  with  the  Jews.  His  attitude  is 
vehement  and  expressive  : three  Jewish  doctors  stand 
before  him  as  if  confounded  and  put  to  silence  by  his 
eloquent  reasoning. 

7.  St.  Paul  escapes  from  Damascus ; the  basket,  in 
which  he  is  lowered  down  from  a parapet,  is  about  the 
size  of  a hand-basket. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


227 


8.  St.  Paul  delivers  a scroll  to  Timothy  and  Silas ; 
he  consigns  to  their  direction  the  deacons  that  were  or- 
dained by  the  apostles  and  elders.  (Acts  xvi.  4.) 

9.  St.  Paul  and  St.  Peter  meet  at  Pome,  and  em- 
brace with  brotherly  affection.  I believe  this  subject 
to  represent  the  reconciliation  of  the  two  apostles  after 
the  dispute  at  Antioch.  The  inscription  is,  Hie  Paulus 
venit  Romam  et  pacem  fecit  cum  Petro.  (In  the  Chris- 
tian Museum  in  the  Vatican  there  is  a most  beautiful 
small  Greek  picture  in  which  Peter  and  Paul  are  em- 
bracing ; it  may  represent  the  reconciliation  or  the 
parting  : the  heads,  though  minute,  are  extremely 
characteristic.) 

10.  The  decollation  of  St.  Paul  at  the  Aqua  Sal- 
vias ; one  fountain  only  is  introduced. 

This  is  the  earliest  instance  I can  quote  of  the  dra- 
matic treatment  of  the  life  and  actions  of  St.  Paul  in 
a series  of  subjects.  The  Greek  type  of  the  head  of 
St.  Paul  is  retained  throughout,  strongly  individualized, 
and  he  appears  as  a man  of  about  thirty-five  or  forty. 
In  the  later  schools  of  art,  which  afford  some  celebrated 
examples  of  the  life  of  St.  Paul  treated  as  series,  the 
Greek  type  has  been  abandoned. 

The  series  by  Raphael,  executed  for  the  tapestries 
of  the  Sistine  Chapel  in  the  Vatican,  consists  of  five 
large  and  seven  small  compositions. 

1 . The  conversion  of  Saul,  already  described  : the 
cartoon  is  lost.  2.  Elymas  the  sorcerer  struck  blind  : 
wonderful  for  dramatic  power.  3.  St.  Paul  and  Bar- 
nabas at  Lystra.  4.  Paul  preaching  at  Athens.  Of  these 
three  magnificent  compositions  we  have  the  cartoons  at 
Hampton  Court.  5.  St.  Paul  in  prison  at  Philippi. 
The  earthquake  through  which  he  was  liberated  is  here 
represented  allegorically  as  a Titan  in  the  lower  corner 
of  the  picture,  with  shoulders  and  arms  heaving  up  the 
earth.  This,  which  strikes  us  as  rather  pagan  in  con- 
ception, has,  however,  a parallel  in  the  earliest  Chris- 
tian Art,  where,  in  the  baptism  of  Christ,  the  Jordan 
is  sometimes  represented  by  a classical  river-god,  sedge- 
crowned,  and  leaning  on  his  urn. 


228  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


The  seven  small  subjects,  which  in  the  set  of  tapes- 
tries run  underneath  as  borders  to  the  large  composi- 
tions, are  thus  arranged  : 

1 . As  for  Saul,  he  made  havoc  of  the  church,  en- 
tering into  every  house,  and  haling  men  and  women 
committed  them  to  prison/'  (Acts  viii.  3.)  At  one 
end  of  a long  narrow  composition  Saul  is  seated  in  the 
dress  of  a Roman  warrior,  and  attended  by  a lictor ; 
they  bring  before  him  a Christian  youth ; farther  on 
are  seen  soldiers  haling  men  and  women  " by  the 
hair  ; others  flee  in  terror.  This  was  erroneously  sup- 
posed to  represent  the  massacre  at  Prato,  in  1512,  by 
the  adherents  of  the  Medici,  and  is  so  inscribed  in  the 
set  of  engravings  by  Bartoli  and  Landon. 

2.  John  and  Mark  taking  leave  of  the  brethren  at 
Perga  in  Pamphylia.  (Acts  xiii.  3.) 

3.  Paul,  teaching  in  the  synagogue  at  Antioch,  con- 
founds the  Jews.  (Acts  xviii.  3.) 

4.  Paul  at  Corinth  engaged  in  tent-making  with  his 
host.  This  is  an  uncommon  subject,  but  I remember 
another  instance  in  a curious  old  German  print,  where, 
in  the  lower  part  of  the  composition,  the  apostle  is 
teaching  or  preaching ; and  above  there  is  a kind  of 
gallery  or  balcony,  in  which  he  is  seen  working  at  a 
loom  : You  yourselves  know  that  these  hands  have 
ministered  to  my  necessities,  laboring  night  and  day, 
because  we  would  not  be  chargeable  unto  you."  (Acts 
xviii.  6.) 

5.  Being  at  Corinth,  he  is  mocked  by  the  Jews. 
(Acts  viii.  12.) 

6.  He  lays  his  hand  on  the  Christian  converts. 

7.  He  is  brought  before  the  judgment-seat  of  Gal- 
lio.* 


Paul,  in  the  island  of  Melita,  shaking  the  viper 
from  his  hand,"  is  not  a common  subject,  and  yet  it 

* Those  who  consult  the  engravings  by  Santi  Bartoli  and  Lan- 
don must  bear  in  mind  that  almost  all  the  references  are  errone- 
ous. See  Passavant’s  Kafael,  ii.  245. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


229 


is  capable  of  the  finest  picturesque  and  dramatic  ef- 
fects : the  storm  and  shipwreck  in  the  background, 
the  angry  heavens  above,  the  red  firelight,  the  group 
of  astonished  mariners,  and,  pre-eminent  among  them, 
the  calm  intellectual  figure  of  the  apostle  shaking  the 
venomous  beast  from  his  hand, — these  are  surely  beau- 
tiful and  available  materials  for  a scenic  picture.  Even 
if  treated  as  an  allegory  in  a devotional  sense,  a single 
majestic  figure,  throwing  the  evil  thing  innocuous  from 
him,  which  I have  not  yet  seen,  it  would  be  an  excel- 
lent and  a significant  subject.  The  little  picture  by 
Elzheimer  is  the  best  example  I can  cite  of  the  pictu- 
resque treatment.  That  of  Le  Sueur  has  much  dig- 
nity ; those  of  Perino  del  Vaga,  Thornhill,  West,  are 
all  commonplace. 

Thornhill,  as  everybody  knows,  painted  the  eight 
principal  scenes  of  the  life  of  the  apostle  in  the  cupola 
of  St.  Pauks.*  Few  people,  I should  think,  have 
strained  their  necks  to  examine  them  ; the  eight  origi- 
nal studies,  small  sketches  en  grisaille^  are  preserved  in 
the  vestry,  and  display  that  heartless,  mindless,  man- 
nered mediocrity,  which  makes  all  criticism  foolishness ; 
I shall,  however,  give  a list  of  the  subjects. 

1.  Paul  and  Barnabas  at  Lystra.  2.  Paul  preaching 
at  Athens.  3.  Elymas  struck  blind.  4.  The  converts 
burn  their  magical  books.  5.  Paul  before  Festus.  6.  A 
woman  seated  at  his  feet ; I presume  the  Conversion 
of  Lydia  of  Thyatira.  7.  Paul  let  down  in  a basket. 
8.  He  shakes  the  viper  from  his  hand. 

At  the  time  that  Thornhill  was  covering  the  cupola 
at  the  rate  of  2/.  the  square  yard,”  Hogarth,  his  son- 
in-law,  would  also  try  his  hand.  He  painted  St.  Paul 
pleading  before  Felix  ” for  Lincoln's  Inn  Hall ; where 
the  subject,  at  least,  is  appropriate.  The  picture  itself 
is  curiously  characteristic,  not  of  the  scene  or  of  the 

* The  clergy  who  permitted  Sir  James  Thornhill  to  paint  the 
cupola  of  St.  Paul’s  with  Scripture  scenes  refused  to  admit  any 
other  paintings  into  the  church.  Perhaps  they  were  justified } 
but  not  by  the  plea  of  Bishop  Terrick,  — the  fear  of  idolatry. 


230  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

chief  personage,  but  of  the  painter.  St.  Paul  loaded 
with  chains,  and  his  accuser  Tertullus,  stand  in  front ; 
and  Felix,  with  his  wife  Drusilla,  are  seated  on  a raised 
tribunal  in  the  background ; near  Felix  is  the  high- 
priest  Ananias.  The  composition  is  good.  The  heads 
are  full  of  vivid  expression,  — wrath,  terror,  doubt, 
fixed  attention ; but  the  conception  of  character  most 
ignoble  and  commonplace.  Hogarth  was  more  at 
home  when  he  took  the  same  subject  as  a vehicle  for  a 
witty  caricature  of  the  Dutch  manner  of  treating  sa- 
cred subjects,  — their  ludicrous  anachronisms  and  mean 
incidents.  St.  Paul,  in  allusion  to  his  low  stature,  is 
mounted  on  a stool ; an  angel  is  sawing  through  one 
leg  of  it ; Tertullus  is  a barrister,  in  wig,  band,  and 
gown ; the  judge  is  like  an  old,  doting  justice  of 
peace,  and  his  attendants  like  old  beggars. 

In  the  Florentine  Gallery  there  is  a very  curious 
series  of  the  lives  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  in  eight 
pictures,  in  the  genuine  old  German  style ; fanciful, 
animated,  full  of  natural  and  dramatic  expression,  and 
exquisitely  finished,  — but  dry,  hard,  grotesque,  and 
abounding  in  anachronisms.* 

Among  the  few  separate  historical  subjects  in  which 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  represented  together,  the 
most  important  is  the  dispute  at  Antioch,  — a subject 
avoided  by  the  earliest  painters.  St.  Paul  says,  “ When 
Peter  was  come  to  Antioch,  I withstood  him  to  the  face, 
because  he  was  to  be  blamed.”  Guido’s  picture  in  the 
Brera  at  Milan  is  celebrated  : Peter  is  seated,  looking 
thoughtful,  with  downcast  eyes,  an  open  book  on  his 
knees ; Paul,  in  an  attitude  of  rebuke,  stands  over 
against  him.  There  is  another  example  by  Eosso  : 
here  both  are  standing  ; Peter  is  looking  down  ; Paul, 
with  long  hair  and  beard  floating  back,  and  a keen 
reproving  expression,  <<  rebukes  him  to  his  face.”  I 

* This  series,  the  most  important  work  of  the  painter,  Hans 
Schaufelein,  is  not  mentioned  in  Kugler’s  Handbook  It  is  en- 
graved in  outline  in  the  New  Florence  Gallery,  published  in  1837. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


231 


presume  the  same  subject  to  be  represented  by  Lucas 
van  Leyden  in  a rare  and  beautiful  little  print,  in 
which  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  are  seated  together  in 
earnest  conversation.  St.  Peter  holds  a hey  in  his  right 
hand,  and  points  with  the  other  to  a book  which  lies  on 
his  knees.  St.  Paul  is  about  to  turn  the  leaf,  and  his 
right  hand  appears  to  rebuke  St.  Peter  ; his  left  foot  is 
on  the  sword  which  lies  at  his  feet. 

<<  The  Parting  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  before  they 
are  led  to  death. The  scene  is  without  the  gates  of 
Rome  ; and  as  the  soldiers  drag  Peter  away,  he  turns 
back  to  Paul  with  a pathetic  expression.  This  picture, 
now  in  the  Louvre,  is  one  of  Lanfranco’s  best  composi- 
tions.^ 

When  the  crucifixion  of  St.  Peter  and  the  decolla- 
tion of  St.  Paul  are  represented  together  in  the  same 
picture,  such  a picture  must  be  considered  as  religious 
and  devotional,  not  historical ; it  does  not  express  the 
action  as  it  really  occurred,  but,  like  many  pictures  of 
the  crucifixion  of  our  Saviour,  it  is  placed  before  us  as 
an  excitement  to  piety,  self-sacrifice,  and  repentance. 
We  have  this  kind  of  treatment  in  a picture  by  Niccolo 
deir  Abate  : t St.  Paul  kneels  before  a block,  and  the 
headsman  stands  with  sword  uplifted  in  act  to  strike ; 
in  the  background,  two  other  executioners  grasp  St. 
Peter,  who  is  kneeling  on  his  cross,  and  praying  fer- 
vently : above,  in  a glory,  is  seen  the  Virgin ; in  her 
arms  the  Infant  Christ,  who  delivers  to  two  angels 
palm-branches  for  the  martyred  saints.  The  genius  of 
Niccolb  was  not  precisely  fitted  for  this  class  of  subjects. 
But  the  composition  is  full  of  poetical  feeling.  The 
introduction  of  the  Madonna  and  Child  stamps  the 
character  of  the  picture  as  devotional,  not  historical,  — 
it  would  otherwise  be  repulsive,  and  out  of  keeping 
with  the  subject. 

* “St.  Paul  prevents  his  jailer  from  killing  himself”  (Acta 
xvi.)  has  been  lately  painted  by  Claude  Halle,  and  is  now  in  the 
Louvre.  (Ecole  Francaise,  283.) 

t In  the  Dresden  Gal.,  821. 


232  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

There  is  a Martyrdom  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul  en- 
graved after  Parmigiano,*  which  I shall  notice  on 
account  of  its  careless  and  erroneous  treatment.  They 
are  put  to  death  together ; an  executioner  prepares  to 
decapitate  St.  Peter,  and  another  drags  St.  Paul  by  the 
beard  : the  incidents  are  historically  false,  and,  more- 
over, in  a degraded  and  secular  taste.  These  are  the 
mistakes  that  make  us  turn  disgusted  from  the  techni- 
cal facility,  elegance,  and  power  of  the  sixteenth  cen- 
tury, to  the  simplicity  and  reverential  truth  of  the 
fourteenth. 

There  are  various  traditions  concerning  the  relics  of 
St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  According  to  some,  the  bodies 
of  the  two  apostles  were,  in  the  reign  of  Heiiogabalus, 
deposited  by  the  Christian  converts  in  the  catacombs 
of  Rome,  and  were  laid  in  the  same  sepulchre.  After 
the  lapse  of  about  two  hundred  years,  the  Greek  or 
Oriental  Christians  attempted  to  carry  them  off ; but 
were  opposed  by  the  Roman  Christians.  The  Romans 
conquered ; and  the  two  bodies  were  transported  to  the 
church  of  the  Vatican,  where  they  reposed  together  in  a 
magnificent  shrine,  beneath  the  church.  Among  the 
engravings  in  the  work  of  Ciampini  and  Bosio  are  two 
rude  old  pictures  commemorating  this  event.  The  first 
represents  the  combat  of  the  Orientals  and  the  Romans 
for  the  bodies  of  the  Saints  ; in  the  other,  the  bodies 
are  deposited  in  the  Vatican.  In  these  two  ancient 
representations,  which  were  placed  in  the  portico  of  the 
old  basilica  of  St.  Peter,  the  traditional  types  may  be 
recognized,  — the  broad,  full  features,  short,  curled  beard, 
and  bald  head  of  St.  Peter,  and  the  oval  face  and  long 
beard  of  St.  Paul. 

Here  I must  conclude  this  summary  of  the  lives  and 
characters  of  the  two  greatest  apostles,  as  they  have 
been  exhibited  in  Christian  Art ; to  do  justice  to  the 
theme  would  have  required  a separate  volume.  One 

* Bartsch,  vii.  79. 


ST.  PETER  AND  ST.  PAUL. 


233 

observation,  however,  suggests  itself,  and  cannot  bo 
passed  over.  The  usual  type  of  the  head  of  St.  Peter, 
though  often  ill  rendered  and  degraded  by  coarseness, 
can  in  general  be  recognized  as  characteristic ; but  is 
there  among  the  thousand  representations  of  the  Apostle 
Paul  one  on  which  the  imagination  can  rest  completely 
satisfied  ? I know  not  one.  No  doubt  the  sublimest 
ideal  of  embodied  eloquence  that  ever  was  expressed  in 
Art  is  Paphael’s  St.  Paul  preaching  at  Athens.  He 
stands  there  the  delegated  voice  of  the  true  God,  the 
antagonist  and  conqueror  of  the  whole  heathen  world  : 
" Whom  ye  ignorantly  worship.  Him  declare  I unto 
you,^^  — is  not  this  what  he  says  1 Every  feature,  nay, 
every  fold  in  his  drapery,  speaks  ; as  in  the  other  St. 
Paul  leaning  on  his  sword  (in  the  famous  St.  Cecilia), 
every  feature  and  every  fold  of  drapery  meditates. 
The  latter  is  as  fine  in  its  tranquil,  melancholy  grand- 
eur as  the  former  in  its  authoritative  energy  : in  the 
one  the  orator,  in  the  other  the  philosopher,  were  never 
more  finely  rendered : but  is  it,  in  either,  the  Paul  of 
Tarsus  whom  we  know?  It  were  certainly  both  um 
necessary  and  pedantic  to  adhere  so  closely  to  historic 
fact  as  to  make  St.  Paul  of  diminutive  stature  and  St. 
Peter  weak-eyed  : but  has  Raphael  done  well  in  wholly 
rejecting  the  traditional  portrait  which  reflected  to  us 
the  Paul  of  Scripture,  the  man  of  many  toils  and  many 
sorrows,  wasted  with  vigils,  worn  down  with  travel,  — 
whose  high,  bald  forehead,  thin,  flowing  hair,  and  long, 
pointed  beard,  spoke  so  plainly  the  fervent  and  in- 
domitable, yet  meditative  and  delicate,  organization,  — 
and  in  substituting  this  Jupiter  Ammon  head,  with  the 
dark,  redundant  hair,  almost  hiding  the  brow,  and  the 
full,  bushy  beard  ? This  is  one  of  the  instances  in 
which  Raphael,  in  yielding  to  the  fashion  of  his  time, 
has  erred,  as  it  seems  to  me,  — though  I say  it  with  all 
reverence ! The  St.  Paul  rending  his  garments  at 
Lystra,  and  rejecting  the  sacrifice  of  the  misguided 
people,  is  more  particularly  false  as  to  the  character  of 
the  man,  though  otherwise  so  grandly  expressive,  that 


234  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

we  are  obliged  to  admire  what  our  better  sense  — our 
conscience  — cannot  wholly  approve. 

I shall  now  consider  the  rest  of  the  apostles  in  their 
proper  order. 


St.  Andrew. 

Lat»  S.  Andreas.  Ital.  Sant’  Andrea.  Fr,  St.  Andr4.  Patron 
saint  of  Scotland  and  of  Russia.  Nov.  30,  a.  d.  70. 

St.  Andrew  was  the  brother  of  Simon  Peter,  and 
the  first  wlio  was  called  to  the  apostleship.  Nothing 
further  is  recorded  of  him  in  Scripture  : he  is  after- 
wards merely  included  by  name  in  the  general  aceount 
of  the  apostles. 

In  the  traditional  and  legendary  history  of  St.  An- 
drew we  are  told,  that,  after  our  Lord^s  ascension,  when 
the  apostles  dispersed  to  preach  the  Gospel  to  all  na- 
tions, St.  Andrew  travelled  into  Scythia,  Cappadocia, 
and  Bithynia,  everywhere  converting  multitudes  to  the 
faith.  The  Eussians  believe  that  he  was  the  first  to 
preach  to  the  Muscovites  in  Sarmatia,  and  thence  he 
has  been  honored  as  titular  saint  of  the  empire  of 
Eussia.  After  many  sufferings,  he  returned  to  Jeru- 
salem, and  thence  travelled  into  Greece,  and  came  at 
length  to  a city  of  Achaia,  called  Patras.  Here  he 
made  many  converts  ; among  others,  Maximilla,  the 
wife  of  the  proconsul  jEgeus,  whom  he  persuaded  to 
make  a public  profession  of  Christianity.  The  pro- 
consul,  enraged,  commanded  him  to  be  seized  and 
scourged,  and  then  crucified.  The  cross  on  which  he 
suffered  was  of  a peculiar  form  {crux  decussata),  since 
called  the  St.  Andrew’s  cross  ; and  it  is  expressly  said 
that  he  was  not  fastened  to  his  cross  with  nails,  but 
with  cords,  — a circumstance  always  attended  to  in  the 
representations  of  his  death.  It  is,  however,  to  be  re- 
membered, that,  while  all  authorities  agree  that  he  was 
crucified,  and  that  the  manner  of  his  crucifixion  was 
peculiar,  they  are  not  agreed  as  to  the  form  of  his 


ST,  ANDREW, 


235 

cross.  St.  Peter  Chrysologos  says  that  it  was  a tree  : 
another  author  affirms  that  it  was  an  olive-tree.  The 
Abbe  Mery  remarks,  that  it  is  a mistake  to  give  the 
transverse  cross  to  St.  Andrew ; that  it  ought  not  to 
differ  from  the  cross  of  our  Lord.  His  reasons  are  not 
absolutely  conclusive  : II  suffit  pour  montrer  quhls 
sont  ladessus  dans  Terreur,  de  voir  la  croix  veritable  de 
St.  Andre,  conservee  dans  TEglise  de  St.  Victor  de 
Marseille ; on  trouvera  qu’elle  est  a angles  droits,'^ 
&c.  * Seeing  is  believing ; nevertheless,  the  form  is 
fixed  by  tradition  and  usage,  and  ought  not  to  be 
departed  from,  though  Michael  Angelo  has  done  so  in 
the  figure  of  St.  Andrew  in  the  Last  Judgment,  and 
there  are  several  examples  in  the  Italian  masters.! 
The  legend  goes  on  to  relate,  that  St.  Andrew,  on  ap- 
proaching the  cross  prepared  for  his  execution,  saluted 
and  adored  it  on  his  knees,  as  being  already  consecrated 
by  the  sufferings  of  the  Redeemer,  and  met  his  death 
triumphantly.  Certain  of  his  relics  were  brought  from 
Patras  to  Scotland  in  the  fourth  century,  and  since  that 
time  St.  Andrew  has  been  honored  as  the  patron  saint 
of  Scotland,  and  of  its  chief  order  of  knighthood.  He 
is  also  the  patron  saint  of  the  famous  Burgundian 
Order,  the  Golden  Pleece  ; and  of  Russia  and  its  chief 
Order,  the  Cross  of  St.  Andrew. 

Since  the  fourteenth  century,  St.  Andrew  is  gen- 
erally distinguished  in  works  of  art  by  the  transverse 
cross ; the  devotional  pictures  in  which  he  figures  as 
one  of  the  series  of  apostles,  or  singly  as  patron  saint, 
represent  him  as  a very  old  man  with  some  kind  of 
brotherly  resemblance  to  St.  Peter  ; his  hair  and  beard 
silver  white,  long,  loose,  and  flowing,  and  in  general 
the  beard  is  divided ; he  leans  upon  his  cross,  and 
holds  the  Gospel  in  his  right  hand. 

* Theologie  des  Peintres. 

t In  several  ancient  pictures  and  bas-reliefs  the  cross  has  the 
usual  form,  but  he  is  not  nailed,  — always  bound  with  cords,  as  in 
the  ancient  bas-relief  over  the  portal  of  his  church  at  Vercelli. 


236  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

The  historical  subjects  from  the  life  of  St.  Andrew, 
treated  separately  from  the  rest  of  the  apostles,  are 
very  few ; his  crucifixion  is  the  only  one  that  I have 
found  treated  before  the  fifteenth  century.  On  the 
ancient  doors  of  San  Paolo,  the  instrument  of  his 
martyrdom  has  the  shape  of  a Y,  and  resembles  a 
tree  split  down  the  middle.  The  cross  in  some  later 
pictures  is  very  lofty,  and  resembles  the  rough  branches 
of  a tree  laid  transversely. 

I know  but  two  other  subjects  relating  to  the  life  of 
St.  Andrew  which  have  been  separately  treated  in  the 
later  schools  of  art,  — the  Adoration  of  the  Cross,  and 
the  Flagellation. 

“ St.  Andrew  adoring  his  cross,^^  by  Andrea  Sacchi, 
is  remarkable  for  its  simplicity  and  fine  expression ; it 
contains  only  three  figures.  St.  Andrew,  half  undraped, 
and  with  his  silver  hair  and  beard  fioating  dishevelled, 
kneels,  gazing  up  to  the  cross  with  ecstatic  devotion ; 
he  is  addressing  to  it  his  famous  invocation,  — “ Salve, 
Croce  preziosa ! che  fosti  consecrata  dal  corpo  del  mio 
Dio  ! ” — an  executioner  stands  by,  and  a fierce  soldier, 
impatient  of  delay,  urges  him  on  to  death.* 

“ St.  Andrew  taken  down  from  the  cross  ” is  a fine 
effective  picture  by  Eibera.f 

Wlien  Guido  and  Domenichino  painted,  in  emula- 
tion of  each  other,  the  frescos  in  the  chapel  of  Sant^ 
Andrea  in  the  church  of  San  Gregorio,  at  Pome,  Guido 
chose  for  his  subject  the  Adoration  of  the  Cross.  The 
scene  is  supposed  to  be  outside  the  walls  of  Patras  in 
Achaia  ; the  cross  is  at  a distance  in  the  background ; 
St.  Andrew,  as  he  approaches,  falls  down  in  adoration 
before  the  instrument  of  his  martyrdom,  consecrated 
by  the  death  of  his  Lord ; he  is  attended  by  one  sol- 
dier on  horseback,  one  on  foot,  and  three  executioners ; 
a group  of  women  and  alarmed  children  in  the  fore- 
ground are  admirable  for  grace  and  feeling,  — they  are, 
in  fact,  the  best  part  of  the  picture.  On  the  opposite 

* Gallery  of  the  Vatican.  f Munich,  363. 


ST,  ANDREW. 


237 


wall  of  the  chapel  Domenichino  painted  the  Flagella- 
tion of  St.  Andrew,  a subject  most  difficult  to  treat 
effectively,  and  retain  at  the  same  time  the  dignity  of 
the  suffering  apostle,  while  avoiding  all  resemblance  to 
a similar  scene  in  the  life  of  Christ.  Here  he  is  bound 
down  on  a sort  of  table ; one  man  lifts  a rod,  another 
seems  to  taunt  the  prostrate  saint ; a lictor  drives  back 
the  people.  The  group  of  the  mother  and  frightened 
children,  which  Domenichino  so  often  introduces  with 
little  variation,  is  here  very  beautiful ; the  judge  and 
lictors  are  seen  behind,  with  a temple  and  a city  in  the 
distance.  When  Domenichino  painted  the  same  sub- 
ject in  the  church  of  Saut^  Andrea-della- Valle,  he  chose 
another  moment,  and  administered  the  torture  after  a 
different  manner  : the  apostle  is  bound  by  his  hands 
and  feet  to  four  short  posts  set  firmly  in  the  ground ; 
one  of  the  executioners  in  tightening  a cord  breaks  it 
and  falls  back ; three  men  prepare  to  scourge  him  with 
thongs : in  the  foreground  we  have  the  usual  group  of 
the  mother  and  her  frightened  children.  This  is  a 
composition  full  of  dramatic  life  and  movement,  but 
unpleasing.  Domenichino  painted  in  the  same  church 
the  crucifixion  of  the  saint,  and  his  apotheosis  sur- 
mounts the  whole. 

All  these  compositions  are  of  great  celebrity  in  the 
history  of  Art  for  color  and  for  expression.  Lanzi 
says,  that  the  personages,  if  endued  with  speech, 
could  not  say  more  to  the  ear  than  they  do  to  the 
eye.^^  But,  in  power  and  pathos,  none  of  them  equal 
the  picture  of  Murillo,  of  which  we  have  the  original 
study  in  England.*  St.  Andrew  is  suspended  on  the 
high  cross,  formed,  not  of  planks,  but  of  the  trunks 
of  trees  laid  transversely.  He  is  bound  with  cords, 
undraped,  except  by  a linen  cloth  ; his  silver  hair  and 
beard  loosely  streaming  in  the  air ; his  aged  counte- 
nance illuminated  by  a heavenly  transport,  as  he  looks 
up  to  the  opening  skies,  whence  two  angels  of  really 
celestial  beauty,  like  almost  all  Murillo’s  angels,  de- 

* In  the  collection  of  Mr.  Miles  at  Leigh  Court. 


238  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

scend  with  the  crown  and  palm.  In  front,  to  the  right, 
is  a group  of  shrinking  sympathizing  women ; and  a 
boy  turns  away,  crying  with  a truly  boyish  grief ; on 
the  left  are  guards  and  soldiers.  The  subject  is  here 
rendered  poetical  by  mere  force  of  feeling ; there  is  a 
tragic  reality  in  the  whole  scene,  far  more  effective  to 
my  taste  than  the  more  studied  compositions  of  the 
Italian  painters.  The  martyrdom  of  St.  Andrew,  and 
the  saint  preaching  the  Gospel,  by  Juan  de  Roelas,  are 
also  mentioned  as  splendid  productions  of  the  Seville 
school. 

I think  it  possible  that  St.  Andrew  may  owe  his 
popularity  in  the  Spanish  and  Flemish  schools  of  art 
to  his  being  the  patron  saint  of  the  far-famed  Burgun- 
dian Order  of  the  Golden  Fleece.  At  the  time  that 
Constantinople  was  taken,  and  the  relics  of  St.  Andrew 
dispersed  in  consequence,  a lively  enthusiasm  for  this 
apostle  was  excited  throughout  all  Christendom.  He 
had  been  previously  honored  chiefly  as  the  brother  of 
St.  Peter ; he  obtained  thenceforth  a kind  of  personal 
interest  and  consideration.  Philip  of  Burgundy  (a.  d. 
1433),  who  had  obtained  at  great  cost  a portion  of  the 
precious  relics,  consisting  chiefly  of  some  pieces  of  his 
cross,  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  apostle  his 
new  order  of  chivalry,  which,  according  to  the  pream- 
ble, was  intended  to  revive  the  honor  and  the  memory 
of  the  Argonauts.  His  knights  wore  as  their  badge 
the  cross  of  St.  Andrew. 


St.  James  the  Great. 

Lat.  Sanctus  Jacobus  Major.  Ital.  San  Giacomo,  or  Jacopo,  Mag- 
giore.  Fr.  St.  Jacques  Majeur.  Spa.  San  Jago,  or  Santiago. 
El  Tutelar.  Patron  saint  of  Spain.  July  25.  a.  n.  44. 

St.  James  the  Great,  or  the  Elder,  or  St.  James  3/a- 
ji’or,  was  nearly  related  to  Christ,  and,  with  his  brother 
John  (the  Evangelist)  and  Peter,  he  seems  to  have  been 
admitted  to  particular  favor,  travelled  with  the  Lord, 


ST.  JAMES  THE  GREAT. 


239 


and  was  present  at  most  of  the  events  recorded  in  the 
Gospels.  He  was  one  of  the  three  who  were  permitted 
to  witness  the  glorification  of  Christ  on  Mount  Tabor, 
and  one  of  those  who  slept  during  the  agony  in  the 
garden.  After  our  Saviour’s  ascension,  nothing  is  re- 
corded concerning  him,  except  the  fact  that  Herod  slew 
him  with  the  sword.  In  the  ancient  traditions  he  is 
described  as  being  of  a zealous  and  affectionate  temper, 
easily  excited  to  anger  : of  this  we  have  a particular 
instance  in  his  imprecation  against  the  inhospitable  Sa- 
maritans, for  which  Christ  rebuked  him : Ye  know 
not  what  manner  of  spirit  ye  are  of.  The  Son  of  man 
is  not  come  to  destroy  men’s  lives,  but  to  save  them.” 
(Luke  ix.  55.) 

As  Scripture  makes  no  further  mention  of  one  so 
distinguished  by  his  zeal  and  by  his  near  relationship 
to  the  Saviour,  the  legends  of  the  middle  ages  have 
supplied  this  deficiency ; and  so  amply,  that  St.  James, 
as  St.  Jago  or  Santiago,  the  military  patron  of  Spain, 
beeame  one  of  the  most  renowned  saints  in  Christen- 
dom, and  one  of  the  most  popular  subjects  of  Western 
Art.  Many  of  these  subjects  are  so  singular,  that,  in 
order  to  render  them  intelligible,  I must  give  the  le- 
gend at  full  length  as  it  was  followed  by  the  artists  of 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries. 

According  to  the  Spanish  legend,  the  Apostle  James 
was  the  son  of  Zebedee,  an  illustrious  baron  of  Galilee, 
who,  being  the  proprietor  of  ships,  was  accustomed  to 
fish  along  the  shores  of  a ‘ certain  lake  called  Genesa- 
reth,  but  solely  for  his  good  pleasure  and  recreation : 
for  who  can  suppose  that  Spain,  that  nation  of  Hidalgos 
and  Caballeros,  would  ever  have  chosen  for  her  patron, 
or  accepted  as  the  leader  and  captain-general  of  her 
armies,  a poor  ignoble  fisherman  ? It  remains,  there- 
fore, indisputable,  that  this  glorious  apostle,  who  was 
our  Lord’s  cousin-german,  was  of  noble  lineage,  and 
worthy  of  his  spurs  as  a knight  and  a gentleman ; — 
so  in  Dante: 

“ Ecco  il  Barone 
Per  cui  laggiu  si  visita  Galkia.” 


240  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

But  it  pleased  him,  in  his  great  humility,  to  follow, 
while  on  earth,  the  example  of  his  divine  Lord,  and 
reserve  liis  warlike  prowess  till  called  upon  to  slaughter, 
by  thousands  and  tens  of  thousands,  those  wicked 
Moors,  the  perpetual  enemies  of  Christ  and  his  servants. 
Now,  as  James  and  his  brother  John  were  one  day  in 
their  father^s  ship  with  his  hired  servants,  and  were 
employed  in  mending  the  nets,  the  Lord,  who  was 
walking  on  the  shores  of  the  lake,  called  them ; and 
they  left  all  and  followed  him ; and  became  thencefor- 
ward his  most  favored  disciples,  and  the  witnesses  of 
his  miracles  while  on  earth.  After  the  ascension  of 
Christ,  James  preached  the  Gospel  in  Judsea;  then  he 
travelled  over  the  whole  world,  and  came  at  last  to 
Spain,  where  he  made  very  few  converts,  by  reason  of 
the  ignorance  and  darkness  of  the  people.  One  day, 
as  he  stood  with  his  disciples  on  the  banks  of  the  Ebro, 
the  blessed  Virgin  appeared  to  him  seated  on  the  top 
of  a pillar  of  jasper,  and  surrounded  by  a choir  of 
angels  ; and  the  apostle  having  thrown  himself  on  his 
face,  she  commanded  him  to  build  on  that  spot  a chapel 
for  her  worship,  assuring  him  that  all  this  province  of 
Saragossa,  though  now  in  the  darkness  of  paganism, 
would  at  a future  time  be  distinguished  by  devotion  to 
her.  He  did  as  the  holy  Virgin  had  commanded,  and 
this  was  the  origin  of  a famous  church  afterwards  known 
as  that  of  Our  Lady  of  the  Pillar  Nuestr a SeTiora  del 
Pillar  ”).  Then  St.  James,  having  founded  the  Chris- 
tian faith  in  Spain,  returned  to  Judaea,  where  he  preached 
for  many  years,  and  performed  many  wonders  and  mir- 
acles in  the  sight  of  the  people : and  it  happened  that 
a certain  sorcerer,  whose  name  was  Hermogenes,*  set 
himself  against  the  apostle,  just  as  Simon  Magus  had 
wickedly  and  vainly  opposed  St.  Peter,  and  with  the 
like  result.  Hermogenes  sent  his  scholar  Philetus  to 
dispute  with  James,  and  to  compete  with  him  in  won- 
drous works  ; but,  as  you  will  easily  believe,  he  had  no 

* Hermogenes  was  the  name  of  a famous  Gnostic  teacher  and 
philosopher  j thence,  I suppose,  adopted  into  this  legend. 


ST.  JAMES  THE  GREAT. 


241 


chance  against  the  apostle,  and,  confessing  himself  van- 
quished, he  returned  to  his  master,  to  whom  he  an- 
nounced his  intention  to  follow  henceforth  James  and 
his  doctrine.  Then  Hermogenes,  in  a rage,  bound 
Philetus  by  his  diabolical  spells,  so  that  he  could  not 
move  hand  or  foot,  saying,  “ Let  us  now  see  if  thy 
new  master  can  deliver  thee  ” : and  Philetus  sent  his 
servant  to  St.  James,  praying  for  aid.  Then  the  apos- 
tle took  off  his  cloak,  and  gave  it  to  the  servant  to  give 
his  master;  and  no  sooner  had  Philetus  touched  it, 
than  he  became  free,  and  hastened  to  throw  himself  at 
the  feet  of  his  deliverer.  Hermogenes,  more  furious  than 
ever,  called  to  the  demons  who  served  him,  and  com- 
manded that  they  should  bring  to  him  James  and  Phi- 
letus, bound  in  fetters;  but  on  their  way  the  demons 
met  with  a company  of  angels,  who  seized  upon  them, 
and  punished  them  for  their  wicked  intentions,  till  they 
cried  for  mercy.  Then  St.  James  said  to  them,  Go 
back  to  him  who  sent  ye,  and  bring  him  hither  bound.” 
And  they  did  so ; and  having  laid  the  sorcerer  down  at 
the  feet  of  St.  James,  they  besought  him,  saying,  ‘‘Now 
give  us  power  to  be  avenged  of  our  enemy  and  thine  ! ” 
But  St.  James  rebuked  them,  saying,  “ Christ  hath 
commanded  us  to  do  good  for  evil.”  So  he  delivered 
Hermogenes  from  their  liands  ; and  the  magician,  being 
utterly  confounded,  cast  his  books  into  the  sea,  and  de- 
sired of  St.  James  that  he  would  protect  him  against 
the  demons,  his  former  servants.  Then  St.  James 
gave  him  his  st^ff,  as  the  most  effectual  means  of  de- 
fence against  the  infernal  spirits ; and  Hermogenes 
became  a faithful  disciple  and  preacher  of  the  word 
from  that  day. 

But  the  evil-minded  Jews,  being  more  and  more  in- 
censed, took  James  and  bound  him,  and  brought  him 
before  the  tribunal  of  Herod  Agrippa ; and  one  of  those 
who  dragged  him  along,  touched  by  the  gentleness  of 
his  demeanor,  and  by  his  miracles  of  mercy,  was  con- 
verted, and  supplicated  to  die  with  him ; and  the  apos- 
tle gave  him  the  kiss  of  peace,  saying,  “ Pax  vobis ! ” 
16 


242  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

and  the  kiss  and  the  words  together  have  remained  as 
a form  of  benediction  in  the  Church  to  this  day.  Then 
they  were  both  beheaded,  and  so  died. 

And  the  disciples  of  St.  James  came  and  took  away 
his  body ; and,  not  daring  to  bury  it,  for  fear  of  the 
Jews,  they  carried  it  to  Joppa,  and  placed  it  on  board 
of  a ship  : some  say  that  the  ship  was  of  marble,  but 
this  is  not  authenticated ; however,  it  is  most  certain 
that  angels  conducted  the  ship  miraculously  to  the  coast 
of  Spain,  where  they  arrived  in  seven  days ; and,  sail- 
ing through  the  straits  called  the  Pillars  of  Hercules, 
they  landed  at  length  in  Galicia,  at  a port  called  Lda 
Plavia,  now  Padron. 

In  those  days  there  reigned  over  the  country  a cer- 
tain queen  whose  name  was  Lupa,  and  she  and  all  her 
people  were  plunged  in  wickedness  and  idolatry.  Now, 
having  come  to  shore,  they  laid  the  body  of  the  apostle 
upon  a great  stone,  which  became  like  wax,  and,  re- 
ceiving the  body,  closed  around  it : this  was  a sign  that 
the  saint  willed  to  remain  there ; but  the  wicked  queen 
Lupa  was  displeased,  and  she  commanded  that  they 
should  harness  some  wild  bulls  to  a car,  and  place  on 
it  the  body,  with  the  self-formed  tomb,  hoping  that  they 
would  drag  it  to  destruction.  But  in  this  she  was  mis- 
taken; for  the  wild  bulls,  when  signed  by  the  cross, 
became  as  docile  as  sheep,  and  they  drew  the  body  of 
the  apostle  straight  into  the  court  of  her  palace.  When 
Queen  Lupa  beheld  this  miracle,  she  was  confounded, 
and  she  and  all  her  people  became  Christians.  She 
built  a magnificent  church  to  receive  the  sacred  re- 
mains, and  died  in  the  odor  of  sanctity. 

But  then  came  the  darkness  and  ruin  which  during 
the  invasion  of  the  Barbarians  overshadowed  all  Spain ; 
and  the  body  of  the  apostle  was  lost,  and  no  one  knew 
where  to  find  it,  till,  in  the  year  800,  the  place  of  sepul- 
ture was  revealed  to  a certain  holy  friar. 

Then  they  caused  the  body  of  the  saint  to  be  trans- 
ported to  Compostella ; and,  in  consequence  of  the  sur- 
prising miracles  which  graced  his  shrine,  he  was  honored 


ST.  JAMES  THE  GREAT. 


243 


not  merely  in  Galicia,  but  throughout  all  Spain.  He 
became  the  patron  saint  of  the  Spaniards,  and  Com- 
postella,  as  a place  of  pilgrimage,  was  renowned 
throughout  Europe.  From  all  countries  hands  of  pil- 
grims resorted  there,  so  that  sometimes  there  were  no 
less  than  a hundred  thousand  in  one  year.  The  mili- 
tary Order  of  Saint  Jago,  enrolled  by  Don  Alphonso 
for  their  protection,  became  one  of  the  greatest  and 
richest  in  Spain. 

Now,  if  I should  proceed  to  recount  all  the  wonder- 
ful deeds  enacted  by  Santiago  in  behalf  of  his  chosen 
people,  they  would  fill  a volume.  The  Spanish  histo- 
rians number  thirty-eight  visible  apparitions,  in  which 
this  glorious  saint  descended  from  heaven  in  person, 
and  took  the  eommand  of  their  armies  against  the 
Moors.  The  first  of  these,  and  the  most  famous  of  all, 
I shall  now  relate. 

In  the  year  of  our  Lord  939,  King  Ramirez,  having 
vowed  to  deliver  Castile  from  the  shameful  tribute  im- 
posed by  the  Moors,  of  one  hundred  virgins  delivered 
annually,  collected  his  troops,  and  defied  their  king 
Abdelraman,  to  battle ; — 

‘‘  The  king  called  God  to  witness,  that,  came  there  weal  or  woe, 
Thenceforth  no  maiden  tribute  from  out  Castile  should  go.  — 

‘ At  least  I will  do  battle  on  God  our  Saviour’s  foe, 

And  die  beneath  my  banner  before  I see  it  so  i * 

Accordingly  he  charged  the  Moorish  host  on  the 
plain  of  Alveida  or  Clavijo  : after  a furious  conflict, 
the  Christians  were,  by  the  permission  of  Heaven,  de- 
feated, and  forced  to  retire.  Night  separated  the  com- 
batants, and  King  Ramirez,  overpowered  with  fatigue, 
and  sad  at  heart,  flung  himself  upon  his  couch  and 
slept.  In  his  sleep  he  beheld  the  apostle  St.  Jago,  who 
promised  to  be  with  him  next  morning  in  the  field,  and 
assured  him  of  victory.  The  king,  waking  up  from 
the  glorious  vision,  sent  for  his  prelates  and  officers,  to 
whom  he  related  it ; and  the  next  morning,  at  the  head 
of  his  army,  he  recounted  it  to  his  soldiers,  bidding 


244  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

them  rely  on  heavenly  aid.  He  then  ordered  the  trum- 
pets to  sound  to  battle.  The  soldiers,  inspired  with 
fresh  courage,  rushed  to  the  fight.  Suddenly  St.  Jago 
was  seen  mounted  on  a milk-white  charger,  and  waving 
aloft  a white  standard ; he  led  on  the  Christians,  wdio 
gained  a decisive  victory,  leaving  sixty  thousand  Moors 
dead  on  the  field.  This  was  the  famous  battle  of  Cla- 
vijo ; and  ever  since  that  day,  “ Santiago  \ ” has  been 
the  war-cry  of  the  Spanish  armies. 

But  it  was  not  only  on  such  great  occasions  that  the 
invincible  patron  of  Spain  was  pleased  to  exhibit  his 
power  : he  condescended  oftentimes  to  interfere  for  the 
protection  of  the  poor  and  oppressed  ; of  which  I will 
now  give  a notable  instance,  as  it  is  related  by  Pope 
Calixtus  II. 

There  was  a certain  German,  who  with  his  wife  and 
son  went  on  a pilgrimage  to  St.  James  of  Compostella. 
Having  come  as  far  as  Torlosa,  they  lodged  at  an  inn 
there  ; and  the  host  had  a fair  daughter,  who,  looking 
on  the  son  of  the  pilgrim,  a handsome  and  a graceful 
youth,  became  deeply  enamored  ; but  he,  being  virtu- 
ous, and,  moreover,  on  his  way  to  a holy  shrine,  refused 
to  listen  to  her  allurements. 

Then  she  thought  how  she  might  be  avenged  for  this 
slight  put  upon  her  charms,  and  hid  in  his  wallet  her 
father’s  silver  drinking-cup.  The  next  morning,  no 
sooner  were  they  departed,  than  the  host,  discovering 
his  loss,  pursued  them,  accused  them  before  the  judge, 
and  the  cup  being  found  in  the  young  man’s  wallet, 
he  was  condemned  to  be  hung,  and  all  they  possessed 
was  confiscated  to  the  host. 

Then  the  afflicted  parents  pursued  their  way  lament- 
ing, and  made  their  prayer  and  their  complaint  before 
the  altar  of  the  blessed  Saint  Jago  ; and  thirty-six  days 
afterwards  as  they  returned  by  the  spot  where  their  son 
hung  on  the  gibbet,  they  stood  beneath  it,  weeping  and 
lamenting  bitterly.  Then  the  son  spoke  and  said,  “ O 
my  mother  ! 0 my  father  ! do  not  lament  for  me,  for 


ST.  JAMES  THE  GREAT. 


245 

I have  never  been  in  better  cheer ; the  blessed  apostle 
James  is  at  my  side,  sustaining  me  and  filling  me  with 
celestial  comfort  and  joy  ! The  parents,  being  aston- 
islied,  hastened  to  the  judge,  wlio  at  that  moment  was 
seated  at  table,  and  the  mother  called  out,  Our  son 
lives  ! ” The  judge  mocked  at  them  : What  sayest 
thou,  good  woman  1 thou  art  beside  thyself ! If  thy 
son  lives,  so  do  those  fowls  in  my  dish/’  And  lo  ! 
scarcely  had  he  uttered  the  words,  when  the  fowls  (be- 
ing a cock  and  a hen)  rose  up  full-feathered,  in  the 
dish,  and  the  cock  began  to  crow,  to  the  great  admira- 
tion of  the  judge  and  his  attendants.^  Then  the  judge 
rose  up  from  table  hastily,  and  called  together  the 
priests  and  the  lawyers,  and  they  went  in  procession  to 
the  gibbet,  took  down  the  young  man,  and  restored 
him  to  his  parents ; and  the  miraculous  cock  and  hen 
were  placed  under  the  protection  of  the  Church,  where 
they  and  their  posterity  long  flourished  in  testimony  of 
this  stupendous  miracle. 

There  are  many  other  legends  of  St.  James ; the 
Spanish  chroniclers  in  prose  and  verse  abound  in  such ; 
but,  in  general,  they  are  not  merely  incredible,  but 
puerile  and  unpoetical ; and  I have  here  confined  my- 
self to  those  which  I know  to  have  been  treated  in 
Art. 

Previous  to  the  twelfth  century,  St.  James  is  only 
distinguished  among  the  apostles  by  his  place,  which  is 
the  fourth  in  the  series,  the  second  after  St.  Peter  and 
St.  Paul.  In  some  instances  he  is  portrayed  with  a 
family  resemblance  to  Christ,  being  his  kinsman ; the 
thin  beard,  and  the  hair  parted  and  flowing  down  on 
each  side.  But  from  the  thirteenth  century  it  became 
a fashion  to  characterize  St.  James  as  a pilgrim  of 
Compostella  : he  bears  the  peculiar  long  staff,  to  which 
the  wallet  or  gourd  of  water  is  suspended ; the  cloak 
with  a long  cape,  the  scollop-shell  on  his  shoulder  or 
on  his  flapped  hat.  Where  the  cape,  hat,  and  scallop- 
shells  are  omitted,  the  staff,  borne  as  the  first  of  the 

* V.  Southey,  “ Pilgrim  of  Compostella.” 


246  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

apostles  who  departed  to  fulfil  his  Gospel  mission,  re- 
mains his  constant  attribute,  and  by  tliis  he  may  be 
recognized  in  the  Madonna  pictures,  and  when  grouped 
.with  other  saints. 

The  single  devotional  figures  of  St.  James  represent 
him  in  two  distinct  characters  : — 

1.  As  tutelar  saint  of  Spain,  and  conqueror  of  the 
Moors.  In  his  pilgrim  habit,  mounted  on  a white 
charger,  and  waving  a white  banner,  with  white  hair 
and  beard  streaming  like  a meteor,  — or  sometimes 
armed  in  complete  steel,  spurred  like  a kniglit,  his 
casque  shadowed  by  white  plumes,  — he  tramples  over 
the  prostrate  Infidels ; so  completely  was  the  humble, 
gentle-spirited  apostle  of  Christ  merged  in  the  spirit  of 
the  religious  chivalry  of  the  time.  This  is  a subject 
frequent  in  Spanish  schools.  The  figure  over  the  high 
altar  of  Santiago  is  described  as  very  grand  when  seen 
in  the  solemn  twilight. 

2.  St.  James  as  patron  saint  in  the  general  sense. 
The  most  beautiful  example  I have  met  with  is  a pic- 
ture in  the  Florence  Gallery,  painted  by  Andrea  del 
Sarto  for  the  Compagnia  or  Confraternita  of  Sant' 
Jacopo,  and  intended  to  figure  as  a standard  in  their 
processions.  The  Madonna  di  San  Sisto  of  Raphael 
was  painted  for  a similar  purpose  : and  such  are  still 
commonly  used  in  the  religious  processions  in  Italy ; 
but  they  have  no  longer  Raphaels  and  Andrea-del-Sar- 
tos  to  paint  them.  In  this  instance  the  picture  has  a 
particular  form,  high  and  narrow,  adapted  to  its  espe- 
cial purpose  : St.  James  wears  a green  tunic,  and  a 
rich  crimson  mantle ; and  as  one  of  the  purposes  of  the 
Compagnia  was  to  educate  poor  orphans,  they  are  rep- 
resented by  tlie  two  boys  at  his  feet.  This  picture 
suffered  from  the  sun  and  the  weather,  to  which  it  had 
been  a hundred  times  exposed  in  yearly  processions  ; 
but  it  has  been  well  restored,  and  is  admirable  for  its 
vivid  coloring  as  well  as  the  benign  attitude  and  ex- 
pression. 

3.  St.  James  seated  ; he  holds  a large  book  bound  in 


ST.  JAMES  THE  GREAT 


247 


vellum  (the  Gospels)  in  his  left  hand,  and  with  his 
right  points  to  heaven  : by  Guercino,  in  the  gallery  of 
Count  Harrach,  at  Vienna.  One  of  the  finest  pictures 
by  Guercino  I have  seen. 

Pictures  from  the  life  of  St.  James  singly,  or  as  a 
series,  are  not  common  ; but  among  those  which  re- 
main to  us  there  are  several  of  great  beauty  and  in- 
terest. 

In  the  series  of  frescos  painted  in  a side  chapel  of 
the  church  of  St.  Antony  of  Padua  (a.  d.  1376),  once 
called  the  Capella  di  San  Giacomo,  and  now  San 
Felice,  the  old  legend  of  St.  James  has  been  exactly 
followed  ; and  though  ruined  in  many  parts,  and  in 
others  coarsely  repainted,  these  works  remain  as  com- 
positions amongst  the  most  curious  monuments  of  the 
Trecentisti.  It  appears  that,  towards  the  year  1376, 
Messer  Bonifacio  de^  Lupi  da  Parma,  Cavaliere  e 
Marchese  di  Serana,  who  boasted  of  his  descent  from 
the  Queen  Lupa  of  the  legend,  dedicated  this  chapel  to 
St.  James  of  Spain  (San  Jacopo  di  Galizia),  and  em- 
ployed M.  Jacopo  Avanzi  to  decorate  it,  who  no  doubt 
bestowed  his  best  workmanship  on  his  patron  saint. 
The  subjects  are  thus  arranged,  beginning  with  the 
lunette  on  the  left  hand,  which  is  divided  into  three 
compartments  : — 

1.  Hermogenes  sends  Philetus  to  dispute  with  St. 
James.  2.  St.  James  in  his  pulpit  converts  Philetus. 
3.  Hermogenes  sends  his  demons  to  bind  St.  James 
and  Philetus.  4.  Hermogenes  brought  bound  to  St. 
James.  5.  He  burns  his  books  of  magic.  6.  Hermo- 
genes and  Philetus  are  conversing  in  a friendly  manner 
with  St.  James.  7.  St.  James  is  martyred.  8.  The 
arrival  of  his  body  in  Spain  in  a marble  ship  steered 
by  an  angel.  9.  The  disciples  lay  the  body  on  a rock, 
while  Queen  Lupa  and  her  sister  and  another  personage 
look  on  from  a window  in  her  palace.  Then  follow 
two  compartments  on  the  side  where  the  window  is 
broken  out,  much  ruined  ; they  represented  apparently 
the  imprisonment  of  the  disciples.  12.  The  disciples 


248  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


escape  and  arc  pursued,  and  their  pursuers  with  their 
horses  are  drowned.  13.  The  wild  bulls  draw  the 
sarcophagus  into  the  court  of  Queen  Lupa^s  palace. 
14.  Baptism  of  Lupa.  15.  and  16.  (lower  compart- 
ments to  the  left)  : St.  Jago  appears  to  King  Kamirez, 
and  the  defeat  of  the  Moors  at  Clavijo. 

There  is  a rare  and  curious  print  by  Martin  Schoen, 
in  which  the  apparition  of  St.  James  at  Clavijo  is  rep- 
resented, not  in  the  Spanish,  but  the  German  style.  It 
is  an  animated  composition  of  many  figures.  The  saint 
appears  on  horseback  in  the  midst,  wearing  his  pilgrim^s 
dress,  with  the  cockle-shell  in  his  hat : the  Infidels  are 
trampled  down,  or  fly  before  him. 

On  the  road  from  Spoleto  to  Foligno,  about  four 
miles  from  Spoleto,  there  is  a small  chapel  dedicated  to 
St.  James  of  Galizia.  The  frescos  representing  the 
miracles  of  the  saint  were  painted  by  Lo  Spagna  (a.  d. 
1526),  the  friend  and  fellow-pupil  of  Baphael.  In  the 
vault  of  the  apsis  is  the  Coronation  of  the  Virgin ; she 
kneels,  attired  in  white  drapery  flowered  with  gold,  and 
the  whole  group,  though  inferior  in  power,  appeared  to 
me  in  delicacy  and  taste  far  superior  to  the  fresco  of 
Fra  Filippo  Lippi  at  Spoleto,  from  which  Passavant 
thinks  it  is  borrowed.^  Immediately  under  the  Coro- 
nation, in  the  centre,  is  a figure  of  St.  James  as  patron 
saint,  standing  with  his  pilgrim’s  staff  in  one  hand  and 
the  Gospel  in  the  other  ; his  dress  is  a yellow  tunic  with 
a blue  mantle  thrown  over  it.  In  the  compartment  on 
the  left,  the  youth  is  seen  suspended  on  the  gibbet,  while 
St.  James  with  his  hands  under  his  feet  sustains  him  ; 
the  father  and  mother  look  up  at  him  with  astonish- 
ment. In  the  compartment  to  the  right,  we  see  the 
judge  seated  at  dinner,  attended  by  his  servants,  one 
of  whom  is  bringing  in  a^  dish  : the  two  pilgrims  ap- 
pear to  have  just  told  their  story,  and  the  cock  and  hen 
have  risen  up  in  the  dish.  These  frescos  are  painted 
with  great  elegance  and  animation,  and  the  story  is 

* Passavant’s  Rafael,  i.  508. 


ST,  PHILIP. 


249 


told  with  much  ncuivete.  I found  the  same  legend 
painted  on  one  of  the  lower  windows  of  the  church  of 
St.  Oueu,  and  on  a window  of  the  right-hand  aisle  in 
St.  Vincent’s  at  Kouen. 

Of  St.  John,  who  is  the  fifth  in  the  series,  I have 
spoken  at  large  under  the  head  of  the  Evangelists. 


St.  Philip. 

Ital.  San  Filippo  Apostolo.  Fr.  Saint  Philippe.  Patron  of  Bra- 
bant and  Luxembourg.  May  1. 

Of  St.  Philip  there  are  few  notices  in  the  Gospel.  He 
was  born  at  Bethsaida,  and  he  was  one  of  the  first  of 
those  whom  our  Lord  summoned  to  follow  him.  After 
the  ascension,  he  travelled  into  Scythia,  and  remained 
there  preaching  the  Gospel  for  twenty  years  ; he  then 
preached  at  Hieropolis  in  Phrygia,  where  he  found  the 
people  addicted  to  the  worship  of  a monstrous  serpent 
or  dragon,  or  of  the  god  Mars  under  that  form.  Tak- 
ing compassion  on  their  blindness,  the  apostle  com- 
manded the  serpent,  in  the  name  of  the  cross  he  held 
in  his  hand,  to  disappear,  and  immediately  the  reptile 
glided  out  from  beneath  the  altar,  at  the  same  time 
emitting  such  a hideous  stench  that  many  people  died, 
and  among  them  the  king’s  son  fell  dead  in  the  arms 
of  his  attendants  : but  the  apostle,  by  Divine  power, 
restored  him  to  life.  Then  the  priests  of  the  dragon 
were  incensed  against  him,  and  they  took  him,  and 
crucified  him,  and  being  bound  on  the  cross  they 
stoned  him  ; thus  he  yielded  up  his  spirit  to  God, 
praying,  like  his  Divine  Master,  for  his  enemies  and 
tormentors. 

According  to  the  Scripture,  St.  Philip  had  four 
daughters,  who  were  prophetesses,  and  made  many 
converts  to  the  faith  of  Christ.  (Acts  xxi.  9.)  In 
the  Greek  calendar,  St.  Mariamne,  his  sister,  and 


250  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

St.  Hermione,  his  daughter,  are  commemorated  as 
martyrs. 

When  St.  Philip  is  represented  alone,  or  as  one  of 
the  series  of  apostles,  he  is  generally  a man  in  the 
prime  of  life,  with  little  beard,  and  with  a benign 
countenance,  being  described  as  of  a remarkably  cheer- 
ful and  affectionate  nature.  He  bears,  as  his  attribute, 
a cross,  which  varies  in  form  ; sometimes  it  is  a small 
cross,  which  he  carries  in  his  hand  ; sometimes  a high 
cross  in  the  form  of  a T,  or  a tall  staff  with  a small 
Latin  cross  at  the  top  of  it.  The  cross  of  St.  Philip 
may  have  a treble  signification  : it  may  allude  to  his 
martyrdom  ; or  to  his  conquest  over  the  idols  through 
the  power  of  the  cross  ; or,  when  placed  on  the  top  of 
the  pilgrim's  staff,  it  may  allude  to  his  mission  among 
the  barbarians  as  preacher  of  the  cross  of  salvation. 
Single  figures  of  St.  Philip  as  patron  are  not  common : 
there  is  a fine  statue  of  him  on  the  fa9ade  of  San  Mi- 
chele at  Florence ; and  a noble  figure  by  Beccafumi, 
reading ; ^ another,  seated  and  reading,  by  Ulrich , 
Mair.f 

Subjects  from  the  life  of  St.  Philip,  whether  as  single 
pictures  or  in  a series,  are  also  rarely  met  with.  As 
he  was  the  first  called  by  our  Saviour  to  leave  all  and 
follow  him,  and  his  vocation  therefore  a festival  in  the 
Church,  it  must,  I think,  have  been  treated  apart ; but 
I have  not  met  with  it.  I know  but  of  three  historical 
subjects  taken  from  his  life  : — 

1.  Bonifazio.  St.  Philip  stands  before  the  Saviour; 
the  attitude  of  the  latter  is  extremely  dignified,  that 
of  Philip  supplicatory ; the  other  apostles  are  seen  in 
the  background  : the  coloring  and  expression  of  the 
whole  like  Titian.  The  subject  of  this  splendid  pic- 
ture is  expressed  by  the  inscription  underneath  (John 
xiv.  14)  ; Domine,  ostende  nobis  Patrem,  et  sufficit 
nobis."  Philippe,  qui  videt  me,  videt  et  Patrem 
meum  : ego  et  Pater  unum  sum  us."  J 

* Duomo,  Siena.  t Belvedere,  Vienna. 

t Venice  Acad. 


ST,  PHILIP. 


251 


2.  St.  Philip  exorcises  the  serpent.  The  scene  is 
the  interior  of  a temple,  an  altar  with  the  statue  of  the 
god  Mars  : a serpent,  creeping  from  beneath  the  altar, 
slays  the  attendants  with  his  poisonous  and  fiery  breath. 
The  ancient  fresco  in  his  chapel  at  Padua,  described  by 
Lord  Lindsay,  is  extremely  animated,  but  far  inferior 
to  the  same  subject  in  the  Santa  Croce  at  Florence  by 
Fra  Filippo  Lippi,  where  the  dignified  attitude  of  the 
apostle,  and  the  group  of  the  king’s  son  dying  in  the 
arms  of  the  attendants,  are  admirably  effective  and 
dramatic.  St.  Philip,  it  must  be  observed,  was  the 
patron  saint  of  the  painter. 

3.  The  Crucifixion  of  St.  Philip.  According  to  the 
old  Greek  traditions,  he  was  crucified  with  his  head 
downwards,  and  he  is  so  represented  on  the  gates  of 
San  Paolo  ; also  in  an  old  picture  over  the  tomb  of 
Cardinal  Philippe  d’Alen^on,  where  his  patron,  St. 
Philip,  is  attached  to  the  cross  with  cords,  and  head 
downwards,  like  St.  Peter ; * but  in  the  old  fresco  by 
Giusto  da  Padova,  in  the  Capella  di  San  Filippo,  he  is 
crucified  in  the  usual  manner,  arrayed  in  a long  red 
garment  which  descends  to  his  feet. 

It  is  necessary  to  avoid  confounding  St.  Philip  the 
apostle  with  St.  Philip  the  deacon.  It  was  Philip  the 
deacon  who  baptized  the  chamberlain  of  Queen  Can- 
dace, though  the  action  has  sometimes  been  attributed 
to  Philip  the  apostle.  The  incident  of  the  baptism  of 
the  Ethiopian,  taking  place  in  the  road,  by  running 
water,  on  the  way  that  goeth  down  from  Jerusalem 
to  Gaza,”  has  been  introduced  into  several  beautiful 
landscapes  with  much  picturesque  effect.  Claude  has 
thus  treated  it ; Salvator  Kosa ; Jan  Both,  in  a most 
beautiful  picture  in  the  Queen’s  Gallery ; Kembrandt, 
Cuyp,  and  others. 

* Rome,  S.  Maria-in-Trastevere.  a.  d.  1397. 


252  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


Sr.  Bartholomew. 

Lat.  S.  Bartholomeus.  Ital.  San  Bartolomeo.  Fr,  St.  Barth^lemi. 

Aug.  24. 

As  St.  Bartholomew  is  nowhere  mentioned  in  the 
canonical  books,  except  by  name  in  enumerating  the 
apostles,  there  has  been  large  scope  for  legendary  story, 
but  in  works  of  art  he  is  not  a popular  saint.  Accord- 
ing to  one  tradition,  he  was  the  son  of  a husbandman ; 
according  to  another,  he  was  the  son  of  a prince  Ptolo- 
meus.  After  the  ascension  of  Christ  he  travelled  into 
India,  even  to  the  confines  of  the  habitable  world,  car- 
rying with  him  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew ; returning 
thence,  he  preached  in  Armenia  and  Cilicia ; and  com- 
ing to  the  city  of  Albanopolis,  he  was  condemned  to 
death  as  a Christian  : he  was  first  flayed  and  then  cru- 
cified. 

In  single  figures  and  devotional  pictures,  St.  Bar- 
tholomew sometimes  carries  in  one  hand  a book,  the 
Gospel  of  St.  Matthew ; but  his  peculiar  attribute  is  a 
large  knife,  the  instrument  of  his  martyrdom.  The 
legends  describe  him  as  having  a quantity  of  strong 
black  hair  and  a bushy  grizzled  beard ; and  this  por- 
trait being  followed  very  literally  by  the  old  German 
and  Flemish  painters,  gives  him,  with  his  large  knife, 
the  look  of  a butcher.  In  the  Italian  pictures,  though 
of  a milder  and  more  dignified  appearance,  he  has  fre- 
quently black  hair ; and  sometimes  dark  and  resolute 
features  ; yet  the  same  legend  describes  him  as  of  a 
cheerful  countenance,  wearing  a purple  robe  and  at- 
tended by  angels.  Sometimes  St.  Bartholomew  has 
his  own  skin  hanging  over  his  arm,  as  among  the 
saints  in  Michael  Angelo’s  Last  Judgment,  where  he 
is  holding  forth  his  skin  in  one  hand,  and  grasping  his 
knife  in  the  other  : and  in  the  statue  by  Marco  Agrati 
in  the  Milan  Cathedral,  famous  for  its  anatomical  pre- 
cision and  its  boastful  inscription.  Non  me  Praxiteles 
sed  Marcus  pinxit  Agratis.  I found  in  the  church  of 


ST.  THOMAS. 


253 


Notre  Dame  at  Paris  a picture  of  St.  Bartholomew 
healing  the  Princess  of  Armenia.  With  this  exception, 
I know  not  any  historical  subject  where  this  apostle  is 
the  principal  figure,  except  his  revolting  and  cruel 
martyrdom.  In  the  early  Greek  representation  on  the 
gates  of  San  Paolo,  he  is  affixed  to  a cross,  or  rather 
to  a post,  with  a small  transverse  bar  at  top,  to  which 
his  hafids  are  fastened  above  his  head ; an  executioner, 
with  a knife  in  his  hand,  stoops  at  his  feet.  This  is 
very  different  from  the  representations  in  the  modern 
schools.  The  best,  that  is  to  say,  the  least  disgusting, 
representation  I have  met  with,  is  a small  picture  by 
Agostino  Caracci,  in  the  Sutherland  Gallery,  w'hich 
once  belonged  to  King  Charles  I. : it  is  easy  to  see 
that  the  painter  had  the  antique  Marsyas  in  his  mind. 
That  dark,  ferocious  spirit,  Kibera,  found  in  it  a theme 
congenial  with  his  own  temperament ; * he  has  not 
only  painted  it  several  times  with  a horrible  truth  and 
power,  but  etched  it  elaborately  with  his  own  hand  : a 
small  picture,  copied  from  the  etching,  is  at  Hampton 
Court. 


St.  Thomas. 

Ital.  San  Tomaso.  Sp.  San  Tome.  Dec.  21.  Patron  Saint  of 
Portugal  and  Parma. 

St.  Thomas,  called  Didymus  (the  twin),  takes,  as 
apostle,  the  seventh  place.  He  was  a Galilean  and  a 
fisherman,  and  we  find  him  distinguished  among  the 
apostles  on  two  occasions  recorded  in  the  Gospel. 
When  Jesus  was  going  up  to  Bethany,  being  then  in 
danger  from  the  Jews,  Thomas  said,  Let  us  also  go, 
that  we  may  die  with  him."^  (John  xi.  16,  xx.  25.) 
After  the  resurrection,  he  showed  himself  unwilling  to 
believe  in  the  reappearance  of  the  crucified  Saviour 
without  ocular  demonstration  : this  incident  is  styled 
the  Incredulity  of  Thomas.  Prom  these  two  incidents 

* Stirling’s  “ Artists  of  Spain,”  ii.  p.  153. 


254  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

we  may  form  some  idea  of  his  character  : courageous 
and  affectionate,  but  not  inclined  to  take  things  for 
granted  ; or,  as  a French  writer  expresses  it,  brusque 
et  resolu,  mais  d^un  esprit  exigeant/^  After  the  ascen- 
sion, St.  Thomas  travelled  into  the  East,  preaching  the 
Gospel  in  far  distant  countries . towards  the  rising  sun. 
It  is  a tradition  received  in  the  Church,  that  he  pene- 
trated as  far  as  India ; that  there  meeting  with  the 
three  Wise  Men  of  the  East,  he  baptized  them ; that 
there  he  founded  a church  in  India,  and  suffered  mar- 
tyrdom there.  It  is  related,  that  the  Portuguese  found 
at  Meliapore  an  ancient  inscription,  purporting  that 
St.  Thomas  had  been  pierced  with  a lance  at  the  foot 
of  a cross  which  he  had  erected  in  that  city,  and  that 
in  1523  his  body  was  found  there  and  transported  to 
Goa. 

In  Correggio’s  fresco  of  St.  Thomas  as  protector  of 
Parma  he  is  surrounded  by  angels  bearing  exotic  fruits, 
as  expressing  his  ministry  in  India. 

There  are  a number  of  extravagant  and  poetical  le- 
gends relating  to  St.  Thomas.  I shall  here  limit  my- 
self to  those  which  were  adopted  in  ecclesiastical  deco- 
ration, and  treated  by  the  artists  of  the  middle  ages. 

When  St.  Thomas  figures  as  apostle,  alone  or  with 
others,  in  all  the  devotional  representations  which  are 
not  prior  to  the  thirteenth  century,  he  carries  as  his  at- 
tribute the  builder’s  rule. 

Now,  as  he  was  a fisherman,  and  neither  a carpenter 
nor  a mason,  the  origin  of  this  attribute  must  be  sought 
in  one  of  the  most  popular  legends  of  which  he  is  the 
subject. 

When  St.  Thomas  was  at  Cesarea,  our  Lord  ap- 
peared to  him  and  said,  ^ The  king  of  the  Indies,  Gon- 
doforus,  hath  sent  his  provost  Abanes  to  seek  for 
workmen  well  versed  in  the  science  of  architecture, 
who  shall  build  for  him  a palace  finer  than  that  of  the 
Emperor  of  Rome.  Behold,  now,  I will  send  thee  to 
him.’  And  Thomas  went,  and  Gondoforus  command- 
ed him  to  build  for  him  a magnificent  palace,  and  gave 


ST.  THOMAS. 


^55 


him  much  gold  and  silver  for  the  purpose.  The  king 
went  into  a distant  country,  and  was  absent  for  two 
years  ; and  St.  Thomas  meanwhile,  instead  of  building 
a palace,  distributed  all  the  treasures  intrusted  to  him 
among  the  poor  and  sick ; and  when  the  king  returned, 
he  was  full  of  wrath,  and  he  commanded  that  St. 
Thomas  should  be  seized  and  cast  into  prison,  and  he 
meditated  for  him  a horrible  death.  Meantime  the 
brother  of  the  king  died ; and  the  king  resolved  to  erect 
for  him  a most  magnificent  tomb  ; but  the  dead  man, 
after  that  he  had  been  dead  four  days,  suddenly  arose  and 
sat  upright,  and  said  to  the  king,  * The  man  whom  thou 
wouldst  torture  is  a servant  of  God : behold  I have 
been  in  Paradise,  and  the  angels  showed  to  me  a won- 
drous palace  of  gold  and  silver  and  precious  stones  ’ ; and 
they  said,  * This  is  the  palace  that  Thomas  the  archi- 
tect hath  built  for  thy  brother  King  Gondoforus.^  And 
when  the  king  heard  these  words,  he  ran  to  the  prison, 
and  delivered,  the  apostle ; and  Thomas  said  to  him, 

‘ Knowest  thou  not  that  those  who  would  possess 
heavenly  things,  have  little  care  for  the  things  of  this 
earth  ? There  are  in  heaven  rich  palaces  without  num- 
ber, which  were  prepared  from  the  beginning  of  the 
world  for  those  who  purchase  the  possession  through 
faith  and  charity.  Thy  riches,  O king,  may  prepare 
the  way  for  thee  to  such  a palace,  but  they  cannot  fol- 
low thee  thither.’ 

The  builder’s  rule  in  the  hand  of  St.  Thomas  charac- 
terizes him  as  the  spiritual  architect  of  King  Gondofo- 
rus,  and  for  the  same  reason  he  has  been  chosen  among 
the  saints  as  patron  of  architects  and  builders. 

There  is  in  this  legend  or  allegory,  fanciful  as  it  is,  an 
obvious  beauty  and  significance,  which  I need  not  point 
out.  It  appears  to  me  to  be  one  of  those  many  legends 
which  originally  were  not  assumed  to  be  facts,  but  were 
related  as  parables,  religious  fictions  invented  for  the 
instruction  of  the  people,  like  our  Saviour’s  stories  of 
the  <<  Good  Samaritan,”  the  Prodigal  Son,”  &c.,  and 


Legenda  Aurea. 


256  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

were  rendered  more  striking  and  impressive  hy  the  in- 
troduction of  a celebrated  and  exalted  personage  — our 
Saviour,  the  Virgin,  or  one  of  the  apostles  — as  hero 
of  the  tale.  This  beautiful  legend  of  St.  Thomas  and 
King  Gondoforus  is  painted  on  one  of  the  windows  of 
the  Cathedral  at  Bourges,  — an  appropriate  offering 
from  the  company  of  builders  in  that  ancient  city.  It 
is  also  the  subject  of  one  of  the  finest  of  the  ancient 
French  mysteriesy  which  was  acted  with  great  applause 
at  Paris  in  the  fourteenth  century. 

But,  in  the  historical  subjects  from  the  life  of  St. 
Thomas,  the  first  place  must  be  given  to  the  one  Scrip- 
tural incident  in  which  he  figures  as  a principal  person. 

The  Incredulity  of  St.  Thomas  occurs  in  all  the 
early  series  of  the  life  of  Christ,  as  one  of  the  events 
of  his  mission,  and  one  of  the  proofs  of  his  resurrec- 
tion. On  the  ancient  gates  of  San  Paolo  it  is  treated 
with  great  simplicity  as  a sacred  mystery,  St.  Thomas 
being  the  principal  personage  in  the  action,  as  the  one 
whose  conviction  was  to  bring  conviction  to  the  uni- 
verse. Christ  stands  on  a pedestal  surmounted  by  a 
cross ; the  apostles  are  ranged  on  each  side,  and  St. 
Thomas,  approaching,  stretches  forth  his  hand.  The 
incident,  as  a separate  subject,  is  of  frequent  occurrence 
in  the  later  schools  of  Italy,  and  in  the  Flemish  schools. 
The  general  treatment,  when  given  in  this  dramatic 
style,  admits  of  two  variations : either  St.  Thomas  is 
placing  his  hand,  with  an  expression  of  doubt  and  fear, 
on  the  wounds  of  the  Saviour ; or,  his  doubts  being 
removed,  he  is  gazing  upwards  in  adoration  and  won- 
der. Of  the  first,  one  of  the  finest  examples  is  a well- 
known  picture  by  Bubens,*  one  of  his  most  beautiful 
works  and  extraordinary  for  the  truth  of  the  expression 
in  the  countenance  of  the  apostle,  whose  hand  is  on  the 
side  of  Christ ; St.  John  and  St.  Peter  are  behind. 
In  Vandyck’s  picture  at  Petersburg,  St.  Thomas  stoops 
to  examine  the  Saviour^s  hand.  In  a design  ascribed 
to  Eaphael,  we  have  the  second  version : the  look  of 


Gallery  of  Antwerp. 


ST.  THOMAS. 


257 

astonished  conviction  in  St.  Thomas.*  Niccolb  Pous- 
sin has  painted  it  finely,  introducing  twelve  figures.! 
Guercino^s  picture  is  celebrated,  but  he  has  committed 
the  fault  of  representing  the  two  principal  figures  both 
in  profile.! 

The  legendary  subject  styled  “La  Madonna  della 
Cintola  ” belongs  properly  to  the  legends  of  the  Virgin, 
but  as  St.  Thomas  is  always  a principal  personage  I 
shall  mention  it  here.  The  legend  relates  that  when 
the  Madonna  ascended  into  heaven,  in  the  sight  of  the 
apostles,  Thomas  was  absent ; but  after  three  days  he 
returned,  and,  doubting  the  truth  of  her  glorious  trans- 
lation, he  desired  that  her  tomb  should  be  opened; 
which  was  done,  and  lo  ! it  was  found  empty.  Then 
the  Virgin,  taking  pity  on  his  weakness  and  want  of 
faith,  threw  down  to  him  her  girdle,  that  this  tangible 
proof  remaining  in  his  hands  might  remove  all  doubts 
forever  from  his  mind  : hence  in  many  pictures  of  the 
Assumption  and  Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  St.  Thomas 
is  seen  below  holding  the  sacred  girdle  in  his  hand. 
For  instance,  in  Raphaels  beautiful  “ Coronation  in 
the  Vatican  ; and  in  Correggio's  “ Assumption  ” at 
Parma,  where  St.  Thomas  holds  the  girdle,  and  an- 
other apostle  kisses  it. 

The  belief  that  the  girdle  is  preserved  in  the  Cathe- 
dral at  Pistoia  has  rendered  this  legend  a popular  sub- 
ject with  the  Florentine  painters  ; and  we  find  it  treated, 
not  merely  as  an  incident  in  the  scene  of  the  Assump- 
tion, but  in  a manner  purely  mystic  and  devotional. 
Thus,  in  a charming  bas-relief  by  Luca  della  Robbia,§ 
the  Virgin,  surrounded  by  a choir  of  angels,  presents 
her  girdle  to  the  apostle.  In  a beautiful  picture  by 
Granacci,l|  the  Virgin  is  seated  in  the  clouds ; beneath 
is  her  empty  sepulchre  : on  one  side  kneels  St.  Thomas, 
who  receives  with  reverence  the  sacred  girdle ; on  the 

* Passavant’s  Rafael,  ii.  116. 

t Eng.  by  Audran.  \ Gal.  Vatican. 

§ El.  Acad.  11  El.  Gal. 


17 


258  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

other  kneels  the  Archangel  Michael.  In  simplicity  of 
arrangement,  beauty  of  expression,  and  tender  har- 
mony of  color,  this  picture  has  seldom  been  exceeded. 
Granacci  has  again  treated  this  subject,  and  St.  Thomas 
receives  the  girdle  in  the  presence  of  St.  John  the  Bap- 
tist, St.  James  Major,  St.  Laurence,  and  St.  Bartholo- 
mew.^ We  have  the  same  subject  by  Paolino  da 
Pistoia ; by  Sogliani ; and  by  Mainardi,  a large  and 
very  fine  fresco  in  the  church  of  Santa  Croce  at  Flor- 
ence. 

A poetical  and  truly  mystical  version  of  this  subject 
is  that  wherein  the  Infant  Saviour,  seated  or  standing 
on  his  mother’s  knee,  looses  her  girdle  and  presents  it 
to  St.  Thomas.  Of  this  I have  seen  several  examples ; 
one  in  the  Duomo  at  Viterbo,  t 

In  the  Martyrdom  of  St.  Thomas,  several  idolaters 
pierce  him  through  with  lances  and  javelins.  It  was 
so  represented  on  the  doors  of  San  Paolo,  with  four 
figures  only.  Kubens,  in  his  large  picture,  has  followed 
the  legend  very  exactly ; St.  Thomas  embraces  the 
cross,  at  the  foot  of  which  he  is  about  to  fall,  transfixed 
by  spears.  A large  picture  in  the  gallery  of  Count 
Harrach  at  Vienna,  called  there  the  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Jude,  I believe  to  represent  the  Martyrdom  of  St. 
Thomas.  Two  of  the  idolatrous  priests  pierce  him 
with  lances.  Albert  Diirer,  in  his  beautiful  print 
of  St.  Thomas,  represents  him  holding  the  lance,  the 
instrument  of  his  martyrdom  : but  this  is  very  un- 
usual. 

The  eighth  in  the  order  of  the  Apostles  is  the 
Evangelist  St.  Matthew,  of  whom  I have  spoken 
at  length. 

* Florence,  Casa  Ruccellai. 

t The  romantic  Legend  of  the  sacratissima  cintola^  “ the  most 
sacred  girdle  of  the  Virgin,”  is  given  at  length  in  the  “Legends 
of  the  Madonna.” 


ST.  JAMES  MINOR. 


259 


St.  James  Minor. 

Lat.  S.  Jacobus  Frater  Domini.  Gr.  Adelphotheos.  Ital.  San 

Jacopo  or  Giacomo  Minore.  Fr.  S.  Jacques  Mineur.  May  1. 

The  ninth  is  St.  James  Minor,  or  the  Less,  called 
also  the  J ust : he  was  a near  relative  of  Christ,  being 
the  son  of  Mary,  the  wife  of  Cleophas,  who  was  the  sis- 
ter of  the  Virgin  Mary  ; hence  he  is  styled  the  Lord’s 
brother.”  Nothing  particular  is  related  of  him  till  after 
the  ascension.  He  is  regarded  as  first  Christian  bishop 
of  Jerusalem,  and  venerated  for  his  self-denial,  his  piety, 
his  wisdom,  and  his  charity.  These  characteristics  are 
conspicuous  in  the  beautiful  Epistle  which  bears  his 
name.  Having  excited,  by  the  fervor  of  his  teaching, 
the  fury  of  the  Scribes  and  Pharisees,  and  particularly 
the  enmity  of  the  high-priest  Ananus,  they  flung  him 
down  from  a terrace  or  parapet  of  the  Temple,  and  one 
of  the  infuriated  populace  below  beat  out  his  brains 
with  a fuller^ s club. 

In  single  figures  and  devotional  pictures,  St.  James 
is  generally  leaning  on  this  club,  the  instrument  of  his 
martyrdom.  According  to  an  early  tradition,  he  so 
nearly  resembled  our  Lord  in  person,  in  features,  and 
deportment,  that  it  was  difficult  to  distinguish  them. 
“The  Holy  Virgin  herself,”  says  the  legend,  “had  she 
been  capable  of  error,  might  have  mistaken  one  for  the 
other  ” : and  this  exact  resemblance  rendered  necessary 
the  kiss  of  the  traitor  Judas,  in  order  to  point  out  his 
victim  to  the  soldiers. 

This  characteristic  resemblance  is  attended  to  in  the 
earliest  and  best  representations  of  St.  James,  and  by 
this  he  may  usually  be  distinguished  when  he  does  not 
bear  his  club,  which  is  often  a thick  stick  or  staff. 
With  the  exception  of  those  Scripture  scenes  in  which 
the  apostles  are  present,  I have  met  with  few  pictures 
in  which  St.  James  Minor  is  introduced  : he  does  not 
appear  to  have  been  popular  as  a patron  saint.  The 


26o  sacred  and  legendary  art. 


event  of  his  martyrdom  occurs  very  seldom,  and  is  very 
literally  rendered  : the  scene  is  a court  of  the  Temple, 
with  terraces  and  balconies  ; he  is  falling,  or  has  fallen, 
to  the  ground,  and  one  of  the  crowd  lifts  up  the  club 
to  smite  him. 

Ignorant  artists  have  in  some  instances  confounded 
St.  James  Major  and  St.  James  Minor.  The  Capella 
dei  Belludi  at  Padua,  already  mentioned,  dedicated  to 
St.  Philip  and  St.  James,  contains  a series  of  frescos 
from  the  life  of  St.  James  Minor,  in  which  are  some 
of  the  miraculous  incidents  attributed  in  the  Legenda 
Aurea  to  St.  James  Major. 

1.  The  Council  of  the  Apostles  held  at  Jerusalem, 
in  which  St.  James  was  nominated  chief  or  bishop  of 
the  infant  church.  2.  Our  Saviour  after  his  resurrec- 
tion appears  to  St.  James,  who  had  vowed  not  to  eat 
till  he  should  see  Christ.^  3.  St.  James  thrown  down 
from  the  pulpit  in  the  court  of  the  Temple.  4.  He  is 
slain  by  the  fuller.  5.  A certain  merchant  is  stript  of 
all  his  goods  by  a tyrant,  and  cast  into  prison.  He 
implores  the  protection  of  St.  James,  who,  leading  him 
to  the  summit  of  the  tower,  commands  the  tower  to 
bow  itself  to  the  ground,  and  the  merchant  steps  from 
it  and  escapes  ; or,  according  to  the  version  followed  in 
the  fresco,  the  apostle  lifts  the  tower  on  one  side  from 
its  foundation,  and  the  prisoner  escapes  from  under  it, 
like  a mouse  out  of  a trap.  6.  A poor  pilgrim,  having 
neither  money  nor  food,  fell  asleep  by  the  wayside, 
and,  on  waking,  found  that  St.  James  had  placed  be- 
side him  a loaf  of  bread,  which  miraculously  supplied 
his  wants  to  the  end  of  his  journey.  These  two  last 
stories  are  told  also  of  St.  James  of  Galicia,  but  I have 
never  met  with  any  pictures  of  his  life  in  which  they 
are  included.  Here  they  undoubtedly  refer  to  St. 
James  Minor,  the  chapel  being  consecrated  to  his  honor. 

* “ Very  soon  after  the  Lord  was  risen,  he  went  to  James,  and 
showed  himself  to  him.  For  James  had  solemnly  sworn  that  he 
would  eat  no  bread  from  the  time  that  he  had  drank  the  cup  of  the 
Lord  till  he  should  see  him  risen  from  among  them  that  sleep. 


ST.  SIMON  ZELOTES.  — ST.  JUDE.  261 


St.  Simon  Zelotes  (or  the  Zealot).  St.  Jude 
(Thaddeus,  or  Lebbeus). 

Ital.  San  Simone  5 San  Taddeo.  Fr.  S.  Simon  le  Zele.  S.  Thad- 
dee.  Ger.  Judas  Thaddaeus.  Oct.  28. 

The  uncertainty,  contradiction,  and  confusion  which 
I find  in  all  the  ecclesiastical  biographies  relative  to 
these  apostles,  make  it  impossible  to  give  any  clear 
account  of  them ; and  as  subjects  of  art  they  are  so 
unimportant,  and  so  uninteresting,  that  it  is  the  less 
necessary.  According  to  one  tradition,  they  were  the 
same  mentioned  by  Matthew  as  our  Lord’s  brethren  or 
kinsmen.  But,  according  to  another  tradition,  they 
were  not  the  same,  but  two  brothers  who  were  among 
the  shepherds  to  whom  the  angel  and  the  heavenly  host 
revealed  the  birth  of  the  Saviour.  Those  painters  who 
followed  the  first  tradition  represent  Simon  and  Jude  as 
young,  or  at  least  in  the  prime  of  life.  Those  who 
adopt  the  second  represent  them  as  very  old,  taking  it 
for  granted  that  at  the  birth  of  Christ  they  must  have 
been  full-grown  men ; and  this,  I think,  is  the  legend 
usually  followed.  It  seems,  however,  generally  agreed, 
that  they  preached  the  Gospel  together  in  Syria  and 
Mesopotamia,  and  together  suffered  martyrdom  in  Per- 
sia : in  what  manner  they  suffered  is  unknown  ; but  it 
is  supposed  that  St.  Simon  was  sawn  asunder,  and  St. 
Thaddeus  killed  with  a halberd. 

In  a series  of  apostles,  St.  Simon  bears  the  saw,  and 
St.  Thaddeus  a halberd.  In  Greek  art,  Jude  and  Thad- 
deus are  two  different  persons.  Jude  is  represented 
young,  Thaddeus  old.  St.  Simon  in  extreme  old  age, 
with  a bald  head,  and  long  white  beard.  In  the  Greek 

‘ Bring,’  saith  the  Lord,  ‘ a table  and  bread.’  He  took  bread,  and 
blessed  and  brake  it,  and  then  gave  it  to  James  the  Just,  and  said 
to  him,  ‘ My  brother,  eat  thy  bread  ; for  the  Son  of  man  is  risen 
from  among  them  that  sleep.’  ” — St.  Jerome,  as  quoted  in  Lard« 
ner,  Lives  of  the  Apostles^  chap.  16. 


262  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


representation  of  his  martyrdom,  he  is  affixed  to  a cross 
exactly  like  that  of  our  Saviour,  so  that,  but  for  the 
superscription  O CIMQN,  he  might  be  mistaken  for 
Christ.  I do  not  know  of  any  separate  picture  of  these 
apostles. 

There  is,  however,  one  manner  of  treating  them, 
with  reference  to  their  supposed  relationship  to  our 
Saviour,  which  is  peculiarly  beautiful.  Assuming  that 
the  three  last-named  apostles,  James,  the  son  of  Mary 
Cleophas  ; Simon  and  Jude  ; Joseph  or  Joses  the  Just, 
also  named  by  Matthew  among  the  brethren  of  Christ ; 
together  with  James  and  John,  the  sons  of  Mary  Sa- 
lome, — were  all  nearly  related  to  the  Saviour ; it  was 
surely  a charming  idea  to  group  as  children  around  him 
in  his  infancy  those  who  were  afterwards  called  to  be 
the  chosen  ministers  of  his  Word.  Christianity,  which 
has  glorified  womanhood  and  childhood,  never  suggest- 
ed to  the  Christian  artist  a more  beautiful  subject,  nor 
one  which  it  would  be  more  easy,  by  an  unworthy  or 
too  picturesque  treatment,  to  render  merely  pretty  and 
commonplace.  This  version,  however,  of  the  Sacra 
Famiglia  is  rarely  met  wdth.  There  is  an  example  in 
the  Louvre,  signed  Laurentius  ” (Lorenzo  di  Pavia, 
A.  D.  1513),  which  is  remarkable  as  a religious  repre- 
sentation ; but  the  most  beautiful  instance  of  this  treat- 
ment is  a chef-d’oeuvre  of  Perugino,  in  the  Musee  at 
Marseilles.  In  the  centre  is  the  Virgin,  seated  on  a 
throne ; she  holds  the  Infant  Christ  in  her  arms.  Be- 
hind her  is  St.  Anna,  her  two  hands  resting  affection- 
ately on  the  shoulders  of  the  Virgin.  In  front,  at  the 
foot  of  the  throne,  are  two  lovely  children,  undraped, 
with  glories  round  their  heads,  on  which  are  inscribed 
their  names,  Simon  and  Thaddeus.  To  the  right  is 
Mary  Salome,  a beautiful  young  woman,  holding  a 
child  in  her  arms,  — St.  John,  afterwards  the  Evangelist. 
Near  her  is  Joachim,  the  father  of  the  Virgin.  At  his 
feet  another  child,  James  Major.  To  the  left  of  the 
Virgin,  Mary  the  wdfe  of  Cleophas,  standing,  holds  by 
the  hand  James  Minor:  behind  her,  Joseph,  the  bus- 


'ST,  MATTniAS,  — JUDAS  ISCARIOT.  263 

band  of  the  Virgin,  and  at  his  feet  another  child,  Joseph 
(or  Joses)  Justus.  I have  also  seen  this  subject  in  illu- 
minated MSS.,  and,  however  treated,  it  is  surely  very 
poetical  and  suggestive.^ 


St.  Matthias. 

Ital.  San  Mattia.  Fr.  St.  Mathias.  Feb.  24. 

St.  Matthias,  who  was  chosen  by  lot  to  fill  the 
place  of  the  traitor  Judas,  is  the  last  of  the  apostles. 
(Acts  i.)  He  preached  the  Gospel  in  Judaea,  and  suf- 
fered martyrdom  at  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  either  by 
the  lance  or  by  the  axe.  In  the  Italian  series  of  the 
apostles,  he  bears  as  his  attribute  the  lance ; in  the  Ger- 
man sets,  more  commonly  the  axe.f  The  ceremony 
of  choosing  St.  Matthias  by  lot,  is  the  subject  of  a 
mediocre  picture  by  Boschi.  St.  Denis  says  that  the 
apostles  were  directed  in  their  choice  by  a beam  of 
divine  splendor,  for  it  were  impious  to  suppose  that 
such  an  election  was  made  by  chance.  In  this  picture 
of  Boschi,  a ray  of  light  falls  from  heaven  on  the  head 
of  St.  Matthias. 

There  is  a figure  of  this  apostle  by  Cosimo  Roselli, 
holding  a sword  by  the  point : what  might  be  the  inten- 
tion of  that  capricious  painter  it  is  now  impossible  to 
guess,  f Separate  pictures  of  St.  Matthias  are  very 
rare,  and  he  is  seldom  included  in  sets  of  the  apostles. 


Judas  Iscariot. 

Ital.  Giuda  Scariota.  Fr.  Judas  Iscariotte. 

The  very  name  of  Judas  Iscariot  has  become  a by- 
word; his  person  and  character  an  eternal  type  of 
impiety,  treachery,  and  ingratitude.  We  shudder  at 


* Matt.  xiii.  55  j Mark  xv.  40. 
X FI.  Acad. 


t FI.  Gal. 


264  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

the  associations  called  up  by  his  memory ; his  crime, 
without  a name,  so  distances  all  possible  human  turpi- 
tude, that  he  cannot  even  be  held  forth  as  a terror  to 
evil  doers  ; we  set  him  aside  as  one  cut  off ; we  never 
think  of  him  but  in  reference  to  the  sole  and  unequalled 
crime  recorded  of  him.  Not  so  our  ancestors ; one 
should  have  lived  in  the  middle  ages  to  conceive  the 
profound,  the  ever-present  horror  with  which  Judas  Is- 
cariot was  then  regarded.  The  Devil  himself  did  not 
inspire  the  same  passionate  hatred  and  indignation. 
Being  the  Devil,  what  coitid  he  be  but  devilish  ? His 
wickedness  was  according  to  his  infernal  nature : but 
the  crime  of  Judas  remains  the  perpetual  shame  and 
reproach  of  our  humanity.  The  Devil  betrayed  man- 
kind, but  Judas  betrayed  his  God. 

The  Gospels  are  silent  as  to  the  life  of  Judas  before 
he  became  an  apostle,  but  our  progenitors  of  the  mid- 
dle ages,  who  could  not  conceive  it  possible  that  any 
being,  however  perverse,  would  rush  at  once  into  such 
an  abyss  of  guilt,  have  filled  up  the  omissions  of  Serip- 
ture  after  their  own  fancy.  They  picture  Judas  as  a 
wretch  foredoomed  from  the  beginning  of  the  world, 
and  prepared  by  a long  course  of  vice  and  crime  for 
that  crowning  guilt  which  filled  the  measure  full.  Ac- 
cording to  this  legend,  he  was  of  the  tribe  of  Keuben. 
Before  his  mother  brought  him  forth,  she  dreamed  that 
the  son  who  lay  in  her  womb  would  be  accursed,  that 
he  would  murder  his  father,  commit  incest  with  his 
mother,  and  sell  his  God.  Terrified  at  her  dream,  she 
took  counsel  with  her  husband,  and  they  agreed  to 
avert  the  threatened  calamity  by  exposing  the  child. 
As  in  the  story  of  CEdipus,  from  which,  indeed,  this 
strange  wild  legend  seems  partly  borrowed,  the  means 
taken  to  avert  the  threatened  curse  caused  its  fulfilment. 
Judas,  at  his  birth,  is  enclosed  in  a chest,  and  flung 
into  the  sea ; the  sea  casts  him  up,  and,  being  found  on 
the  shore,  he  is  fostered  by  a certain  king  and  queen  as 
their  own  son ; they  have,  however,  another  son,  whom 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT.  265 

Judas,  malignant  from  his  birth,  beats  and  oppresses, 
and  at  length  kills  in  a quarrel  over  a game  at  chess. 
He  then  flies  to  Judaea,  where  he  enters  the  service  of 
Pontius  Pilate  as  page.  In  due  time  he  commits  the 
other  monstrous  crimes  to  which  he  was  predestined ; 
and  when  he  learns  from  his  mother  the  secret  of  his 
birth,  he  is  filled  with  a sudden  contrition  and  terror ; 
he  hears  of  the  prophet  who  has  power  on  earth  to  for- 
give sins ; and  seeking  out  Christ,  throws  himself  at  his 
feet.  Our  Saviour,  not  deceived,  but  seeing  in  him  the 
destined  betrayer,  and  that  all  things  may  be  accom- 
plished, accepts  him  as  his  apostle : he  becomes  the 
seneschal  or  steward  of  Christ,  bears  the  purse,  and 
provides  for  the  common  wants.  In  this  position, 
avarice,  the  only  vice  to  which  he  was  not  yet  addicted, 
takes  possession  of  his  soul,  and  makes  the  corruption 
complete.  Through  avarice,  he  grudges  every  penny 
given  to  the  poor,  and  when  Mary  Magdalene  anoints 
the  feet  of  our  Lord  he  is  full  of  wrath  at  what  he  con- 
siders the  waste  of  the  precious  perfume.  <<  Why  was 
not  this  ointment  sold  for  three  hundred  pence,  and 
given  to  the  poor  ? This  he  said,  not  that  he  cared  for 
the  poor,  but  because  he  was  a thief. Through  ava- 
rice, he  yields  to  the  bribe  offered  by  the  Jews.  Then 
follow  the  scenes  of  the  betrayal  of  Christ  and  the 
late  repentance  and  terrible  suicide  of  the  traitor,  as  re- 
corded in  Scripture.  But  in  the  old  Mystery  of  the 
Passion  of  Christ,^’  the  repentance  and  fate  of  Judas 
are  very  dramatically  worked  out,  and  with  all  possible 
circumstances  of  horror.  When  he  beholds  the  mild 
Saviour  before  the  judgment-seat  of  Herod,  he  repents ; 
Remorse,  who  figures  as  a real  personage,  seizes  on  the 
fated  wretch,  and  torments  him  till  in  his  agony  he  in- 
vokes Despair.  Despair  appears,  almost  in  the  guise 
of  the  <<  accursed  wight  ” in  Spenser,  and,  with  like 
arguments,  urges  him  to  make  away  with  his  life ; — 

“ And  brings  unto  him  swords,  rope,  poison,  fire, 

And  all  that  might  him  to  perdition  draw. 

And  bids  him  choose  what  death  he  would  desire.” 


266  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


Or  in  the  more  homely  language  of  the  old  French 
mystery,  — 

“ 11  faut  que  tu  passes  le  pas  ! 

Voici  dagues  et  coutelas, 

Forcettes,  poinqons,  allumettes,  — 

Avises,  choisis  les  plus  belles, 

Et  celles  de  meilleure  forge, 

Pour  te  couper  k coup  la  gorge  j 
Ou  si  tu  aimes  mieux  te  pendre, 

Voici  lacs  et  cordes  a vendre.” 

The  offer  here  of  the  bodkins  and  the  allumettes  re- 
minds us  of  the  speech  of  Falconbridge : — 

“ If  thou  would  St  drown  thyself. 

Put  but  a little  water  in  a spoon. 

And  it  shall  be  as  all  the  ocean. 

Enough  to  stifle  such  a villain  up.” 

Judas  chooses  the  rope,  and  hangs  himself  forth- 
with ; and  falling  headlong,  he  burst  asunder  in  the 
midst,  and  all  his  bowels  gushed  out  ” : which  account 
is  explained  by  an  early  tradition,  that  being  found  and 
cut  down,  his  body  was  thrown  over  the  parapet  of  the 
Temple  into  the  ravine  below,  and,  in  the  fall,  was 
riven  and  dashed  to  pieces. 

There  required  but  one  more  touch  of  horror  to 
complete  the  picture ; and  this  is  furnished  by  a sonnet 
of  Giani,  which  I remember  to  have  read  in  my  youth. 
When  Judas  falls  from  the  fatal  tree,  his  evil  genius 
seizes  the  broken  rope,  and  drags  him  down  to  the 
seething  abyss  below : at  his  approach,  hell  sends  forth 
a shout  of  rejoicing  ; Lucifer  smooths  his  brow,  corru- 
gated with  fire  and  pain,  and  rises  from  his  burning 
throne  to  welcome  a greater  sinner  than  himself : 

“ Pol  fra  le  braccia  incateno  quel  tristo, 

E colla  bocca  sfavillante  e nera 

Gli  rese  il  bacio  ch’  avea  date  a Christo  ! ” 

The  retribution  imaged  in  the  last  two  lines  borders, 
I am  afraid,  on  a concetto;  but  it  makes  one  shiver, 
notwithstanding. 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT, 


267 

Separate  representations  of  the  figure  or  of  the  life 
of  Judas  Iscariot  are  not,  of  course,  to  be  looked  for ; 
they  would  have  been  regarded  as  profane,  as  omi- 
nous, — worse  than  the  evil-eye.  In  those  Scripture 
scenes  in  which  he  finds  a place,  it  was  the  aim  of  the 
early  artists  to  give  him  a countenance  as  hateful,  as 
expressive  of  treachery,  meanness,  malignity,  as  their 
skill  could  compass,  — the  Italians  having  depended 
more  on  expression,  the  German  and  Spanish  painters 
on  form.  We  have  a conviction,  that  if  the  man  had 
really  worn  such  a look,  such  features,  he  would  have 
been  cast  out  from  the  company  of  the  apostles ; the 
legend  already  referred  to  says  expressly  that  Judas 
was  of  a comely  appearance,  and  was  recommended  to 
the  service  of  Pontius  Pilate  by  his  beauty  of  person  : 
but  the  painters,  speaking  to  the  people  in  the  language 
of  form,  were  right  to  admit  of  no  equivocation.  The 
same  feeling  which  induced  them  to  concentrate  on  the 
image  of  the  Demon  all  they  could  conceive  of  hideous 
and  repulsive,  made  them  picture  the  exterior  of  Judas 
as  deformed  and  hateful  as  the  soul  within ; and,  by  an 
exaggeration  of  the  Jewish  cast  of  features  combined 
with  red  hair  and  beard,  they  flattered  themselves  that 
they  had  attained  the  desired  object.  But  as  if  this 
were  not  enough,  the  ancient  painters,  particularly  in 
the  old  illuminations,  and  in  Byzantine  Art,  represent 
Judas  as  directly  and  literally  possessed  by  the  Devil : 
sometimes  it  is  a little  black  demon  seated  on  his  shoul- 
der, and  whispering  in  his  ear ; sometimes  entering  his 
mouth  : thus,  in  their  simplicity,  rendering  the  words 
of  the  Gospel,  Then  entered  Satan  into  Judas.” 

The  color  proper  to  the  dress  of  Judas  is  a dirty, 
dingy  yellow ; and  in  Spain  this  color  is  so  intimately 
associated  with  the  image  of  the  arch-traitor,  as  to  bo 
held  in  universal  dislike  : both  in  Spain  and  in  Italy, 
malefactors  and  galley-slaves  are  clothed  in  yellow.^ 
At  Venice  the  Jews  were  obliged  to  wear  yellow  hats. 

* See  Ford’s  Handbook  of  Spain ; also  Goethe’s  “ Theory  of 
Colors,”  translated  by  Sir  C.  Eastlake.  “ When  a yellow  color  is 


468  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


In  some  of  the  Scriptural  scenes  in  which  Judas  is 
mentioned  or  supposed  to  be  present,  it  is  worth  while 
to  remark  whether  the  painter  has  passed  him  over  as 
spoiling  the  harmony  of  the  saered  composition  by  his 
intrusive  ugliness  and  wickedness,  or  has  rendered  him 
conspicuous  by  a distinct  and  characteristic  treatment. 
In  a picture  by  Niccolb  Frumenti  * of  the  Magdalene 
at  the  feet  of  our  Saviour,  Judas  stands  in  the  fore- 
ground, looking  on  with  a most  diabolical  expression 
of  grudging  malice  mingled  with  scorn ; he  seems  to 
grind  his  teeth  as  he  says,  To  what  purpose  is  this 
waste '?  ” In  Perugino^s  beautiful  picture  of  the  wash- 
ing the  feet  of  the  disciples,!  Judas  is  at  once  distin- 
guished, looking  askance,  with  a wicked  sneer  on  his 
face,  which  is  not  otherwise  ugly.  In  EaphaeFs  com- 
position of  the  Magdalene  anointing  the  feet  of  Christ, 
Judas  leans  across  the  table  with  an  angry  look  of  ex- 
postulation. 

Those  subjects  in  which  Judas  Iscariot  appears  as  a 
principal  personage  follow  here. 

1.  Angelico  da  Fiesole.J  He  is  bribed  by  the  Jews. 
The  high-priest  pays  into  the  hand  of  Judas  the  thirty 
pieces  of  silver.  They  are  standing  before  a doorway 
on  some  steps  ; Judas  is  seen  in  profile,  and  has  the 
nimbus  as  one  of  the  apostles  : three  persons  are  behind, 
one  of  whom  expresses  disapprobation  and  anxiety.  In 
this  subject,  and  in  others  wherein  Judas  is  introduced, 
Angelico  has  not  given  him  ugly  and  deformed  fea- 

communicated  to  dull  and  coarse  surfaces,  such  as  common  cloth, 
felt,  or  the  like,  on  which  it  does  not  appear  with  full  energy, 
the  disagreeable  effect  alluded  to  is  apparent.  By  a slight  and 
scarcely  perceptible  change,  the  beautiful  impression  of  fire  and 
gold  is  transformed  into  one  not  undeserving  the  epithet  foul,  and 
the  color  of  honor  and  joy  reversed  to  that  of  ignominy  and  aver- 
sion. To  this  impression,  the  yellow  hats  of  bankrupts,  and  the 
yellow  circles  on  the  mantles  of  Jews,  may  have  owed  their  ori- 
gin.” (p.  308.) 

* FI.  Gal. 

! FI.  Acad. 


t Manfrini  P.,  Venice. 


JUDAS  ISCARIOT. 


tures  ; but  in  the  scowling  eye  and  bent  brow 
a vicious  expression. 

In  Duccio's  series  of  the  Passion  of  our  Saviour,” 
in  the  Duomo  at  Siena,  he  has,  in  this  and  in  other 
scenes,  represented  Judas  with  regular  and  not  ugly 
features  ; but  he  has  a villanous,  and  at  the  same  time 
anxious,  expression  ; — he  has  a bad  conscience. 

The  scene  between  Judas  and  the  high-priest  is  also 
given  by  Schalken  as  a candlelight  effect,  and  in  the 
genuine  Dutch  style. 

2.  Judas  betrays  his  Master  with  a kiss.”  This 
subject  will  be  noticed  at  large  in  the  Life  of  Christ. 
The  early  Italians,  in  giving  this  scene  with  much  dra- 
matic power,  never  forgot  the  Scriptural  dignity  re- 
quired ; while  the  early  Germans,  in  their  endeavor  to 
render  Judas  as  odious  in  physiognomy  as  in  heart, 
have  in  this,  as  in  many  other  instances,  rendered  the 
awful  and  the  pathetic  merely  grotesque.  We  must 
infer  from  Scripture,  that  J udas,  with  all  his  perversity, 
had  a conscience ; he  would  not  else  have  hanged  him- 
self. In  the  physiognomy  given  to  him  by  the  old 
Germans,  there  is  no  trace  of  this ; he  is  an  ugly,  ma- 
lignant brute,  and  nothing  more. 

3.  Rembrandt.  Judas  throws  down  the  thirty 
pieces  of  silver  in  the  Temple,  and  departs.”^ 

4.  The  remorse  of  Judas.”  He  is  seated  and  in 
the  act  of  putting  the  rope  about  his  neck ; beside  him 
is  seen  the  purse,  and  the  money  scattered  about  the 
ground.  The  design  is  by  Bloemart,  and,  from  the 
Latin  inscription  underneath,  appears  to  be  intended 
as  a v/arning  to  all  unrighteous  dealers. 

5.  Judas  hanging  on  a tree  ” is  sometimes  intro- 
duced into  the  background,  in  ancient  pictures  of  the 
Deposition  and  the  Entombment : there  is  one  in  the 
Frankfort  Museum. 

6.  “ Demons  toss  the  soul  of  Judas  from  hand  to 
hand  in  the  manner  of  a ball”:  in  an  old  French  min- 

* In  the  gallery  of  Lord  Charlemont,  Dublin. 


270 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


iature.*  This  is  sufficiently  grotesque  in  representa- 
tion ; yet,  in  the  idea,  there  is  a restless,  giddy  horror 
which  thrills  us.  At  all  events,  it  is  better  than  placing 
Judas  between  the  jaws  of  Satan  with  his  legs  in  the 
air,  as  Dante  has  done,  and  as  Orcagna  in  his  Dant- 
esque  fresco  has  very  literally  rendered  the  description 
of  the  poet.f 


The  Last  Supper. 

Ital.  H Cenacolo.  La  Cena.  Fr.  La  C6ne.  Ger.  Das  Abendmal 
Christi. 

I HAVE  already  mentioned  the  principal  scenes  in 
which  the  Twelve  always  appear  together ; there  is, 
however,  one  event  belonging  properly  to  the  life  of 
Christ,  so  important  in  itself,  presenting  the  Apostles 
under  an  aspect  so  peculiar,  and  throwing  so  much  in- 
terest around  them  collectively  and  individually,  that  I 
must  bring  it  under  notice  here. 

Next  to  the  Crucifixion,  there  is  no  subject  taken 
from  the  history  of  our  redemption  so  consecrated  in 
Art  as  the  Last  Supper.  The  awful  signification  lent 
to  it  by  Protestants  as  well  as  Catholics  has  given  it  a 
deep  religious  import,  and  caused  its  frequent  represen- 

* MS.,  No.  7206,  Bib.  du  Roi. 

t Florence,  S.  Maria  Novella.  It  is  clear  that  the  extravagant 
legends  which  refer  to  Judas  Iscariot  were  the  inventions  of  the 
middle  ages,  and  are  as  little  countenanced  by  the  writings  of  the 
early  Fathers  as  by  the  Gospels.  Eusebius  says,  that  “Christ 
gave  like  gifts  to  Judas  with  the  other  apostles  ; that  once  our 
Saviour  had  good  hopes  of  him  on  account  of  the  power  of  the 
free  will,  for  Judas  was  not  of  such  a nature  as  rendered  his  sal- 
vation impossible  *,  like  the  other  apostles,  he  might  have  been 
instructed  by  the  Son  of  God,  and  might  have  been  a sincere  and 
good  disciple.”  Quoted  in  Lardner,  vol.  viii.  p.  77.  — The  Ma- 
hometans believe  that  Christ  did  not  die,  that  he  ascended  alive 
into  heaven,  and  that  Judas  was  crucified  in  his  likeness.  Curzon, 
p.  185. 


THE  LAST  SUPPER. 


271 


tation  in  churches  ; it  has  been,  more  particularly,  the 
appropriate  decoration  of  the  refectories  of  convents, 
hospitals,  and  other  institutions  having  a sacred  char- 
acter. In  our  Protestant  churches,  it  is  generally  the 
subject  of  the  altar-piece,  where  we  have  one. 

Besides  being  one  of  the  most  important  and  inter- 
esting, it  is  one  of  the  most  difficult  among  the  sacred 
subjects  treated  in  Art.  While  the  fixed  number  of 
personages  introduced,  the  divine  and  paramount  dig- 
nity of  One  among  them,  the  well-known  character  of 
aH,  have  limited  the  invention  of  the  artist,  they  have 
tasked  to  the  utmost  his  power  of  expression.  The 
occasion,  that  of  a repast  eaten  by  twelve  persons,  is, 
under  its  material  aspect,  so  commonplace,  and,  taken 
in  the  spiritual  sense,  so  awful,  that  to  elevate  himself 
to  the  height  of  his  theme,  while  keeping  the  ideal  con- 
scientiously bounded  within  its  frame  of  circumstance, 
demanded  in  the  artist  aspirations  of  the  grandest  order, 
tempered  by  the  utmost  sobriety  of  reflection  ; and  the 
deepest  insight  into  the  springs  of  character,  combined 
with  the  most  perfect  knowledge  of  the  indications  of 
character  as  manifested  through  form.  On  the  other 
hand,  if  it  has  been  difficult  to  succeed,  it  has  been 
equally  difficult  to  fail  signally  and  completely ; be- 
cause the  spectator  is  not  here,  as  in  the  crucifixion,  in 
danger  of  being  perpetually  shocked  by  the  intrusion 
of  anomalous  incidents,  and  is  always  ready  to  supply 
the  dignity  and  meaning  of  a scene  so  familiar  in  itself, 
out  of  his  own  mind  and  heart.  It  has  followed,  that 
mediocrity  has  been  more  prevalent  and  more  endurable 
in  this  than  in  any  other  of  the  more  serious  subjects 
of  Art.  But  where  excellence  has  been  in  some  few 
instances  attained,  it  has  been  attained  in  such  a su- 
preme degree,  that  these  examples  have  become  a per- 
petual source  of  contemplation  and  of  emulation,  and 
rank  among  the  most  renowned  productions  of  human 
genius. 

But,  before  I come  to  consider  these  analytically,  it 
is  necessary  to  premise  one  or  two  observations,  which 


272  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

will  assist  us  to  discrimination  in  the  general  treat- 
ment. 

Pictures  and  works  of  art,  which  represent  the  Last 
Supper  of  our  Lord,  admit  of  the  same  classification 
which  I have  adhered  to  generally  throughout  this 
work.  Those  which  represent  it  as  a religious  mystery 
must  be  considered  as  devotional ; those  which  represent 
it  merely  as  a scene  in  the  passion  of  our  Saviour  are 
historical.  In  the  first,  we  have  the  spiritual  origin  of 
the  Eucharist ; in  the  second,  the  highly  dramatic  de- 
tection of  Judas.  It  is  evident  that  the  predominating 
motif  in  each  must  be  widely  different.  In  paintings 
which  are  intended  for  the  altar,  or  for  the  chapels  of 
the  Holy  Sacrament,  we  have  the  first,  the  mystical 
version  ; — it  is  the  distribution  of  the  spiritual  food. 
In  the  second  form,  as  the  Last  Supper  eaten  by  Christ 
with  his  disciples,  as  leading  the  mind  to  an  humble 
and  grateful  sense  of  his  sacrifice,  as  repressing  all 
sinful  indulgence  in  food,  it  has  been  the  subject  chosen 
to  decorate  the  refectory  or  common  dining-room  of 
convents. 

It  is  curious  that  on  the  Christian  sarcophagi  the 
Last  Supper  does  not  occur.  There  is,  in  the  Vatican, 
a rude  painting  taken  from  the  catacombs  representing 
twelve  persons  in  a semicircle,  with  something  like 
plates  and  dishes  before  them.  I could  not  determine 
whether  this  was  our  Saviour  and  his  apostles,  or 
merely  one  of  those  feasts  or  suppers  instituted  by  the 
early  Christians  called  Agapoe  or  love-feasts ; but  I 
should  think  the  latter. 

On  the  Dalmatica  (deacon's  robe)  preserved  in  the 
sacristy  of  the  Vatican,  there  is,  if  the  date  be  exact 
(a.  d.  795),  the  most  ancient  representation  I have  seen 
of  the  institution  of  the  Sacrament.  The  embroidery, 
which  is  wonderfully  beautiful,  is  a copy  from  Byzan- 
tine Art.  On  one  side,  our  Saviour  stands  by  a table 
or  altar,  and  presents  the  cup  to  his  apostles,  one  of 
whom  approaches  in  a reverential  attitude,  and  with 
his  hands  folded  in  his  robe ; on  the  other  side,  Christ 


THE  LAST  SUPPER, 


^73 

presents  the  wafer  or  host : so  that  we  have  the  two 
separate  moments  in  separate  groups. 

There  exists  in  the  Duomo  of  Lodi  the  most  ancient 
sculptural  example  of  this  subject  I have  met  with ; it 
is  a bas-relief  of  the  twelfth  century,  dated  1163,  and 
fixed  in  the  wall  to  the  left  of  the  entrance.  Christ 
and  the  apostles  are  in  a straight  row,  all  very  much 
alike ; six  of  the  apostles  lay  their  hands  on  their 
breast,  — Lord,  is  it  11  and  Christ  presents  the 
sop  to  Judas,  who  sits  in  front,  and  is  as  ugly  as 
possible. 

Although  all  the  Byzantine  pictures  of  the  twelfth 
and  thirteenth  centuries  which  have  come  under  my 
notice  represent  Christ  breaking  the  bread  or  holding 
the  cup,  that  is,  the  institution  of  the  Sacrament,  the 
Greek  formula  published  by  Didron  distinguishes  be- 
tween this  scene,  and  that  of  the  repast  in  which  Judas 
is  denounced  as  a traitor.  The  earliest  representation 
to  which  I can  refer  in  Western  Art,  as  taking  the  his- 
torical form,  is  the  Cenacolo  of  Giotto,  the  oldest  and 
the  most  important  that  has  been  preserved  to  us ; it 
was  painted  by  him  in  the  refectory  of  the  convent  of 
Santa  Croce  at  Florence.  This  refectory,  when  I vis- 
ited it  in  1847,  was  a carpet  manufactory,  and  it  was 
difficult  to  get  a good  view  of  the  fresco  by  reason  of 
the  intervention  of  the  carpet-looms.  It  has  been  often 
restored,  and  is  now  in  a bad  state ; still,  enough  re- 
mains to  understand  the  original  intention  of  the  artist, 
and  that  arrangement  which  has  since  been  the  ground- 
work of  similar  compositions. 

A long  table  extends  across  the  picture  from  side  to 
side  : in  the  middle,  and  fronting  the  spectator,  sits  the 
Redeemer ; to  the  right,  St.  John,  his  head  reclining 
on  the  lap  of  Christ ; next  to  him,  Peter ; after  Peter, 
St.  James  Major ; thus  placing  together  the  three  fa- 
vorite disciples.  Next  to  St.  James,  St.  Matthew,  St, 
Bartholomew,  and  a young  beardless  apostle,  probably 
St.  Philip. 

On  the  left  hand  of  our  Saviour  is  St.  Andrew ; and 

i8 


274  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

next  to  him,  St.  James  Minor  (the  two  St.  Jameses 
bearing  the  traditional  resemblance  to  Christ)  ; then 
St.  Simon  and  St.  Jude  ; and  lastly,  a young  apostle, 
probably  St.  Thomas.  (The  reader  will  have  the  good- 
ness to  recollect  that  I give  this  explanation  of  the 
names  and  position  of  the  eleven  apostles  as  my  own, 
and  with  due  deference  to  the  opinion  of  those  who  on 
a further  study  of  the  fresco  may  differ  from  me.)  Op- 
posite to  the  Saviour,  and  on  the  near  side  of  the  table, 
sits  Judas,  apart  from  the  rest,  and  in  the  act  of  dip- 
ping his  hand  into  the  dish.  It  is  evident  that  the 
moment  chosen  by  the  artist  is,  He  that  dippeth  with 
me  in  the  dish,  the  same  shall  betray  me.^' 

Although  the  excuse  may  be  found  in  the  literal 
adoption  of  the  w'ords  of  the  Gospel,*  it  appears  to 
me  a fault  to  make  St.  John  leaning,  as  one  half  asleep, 
on  the  lap  of  our  Saviour,  after  such  words  have  been 
uttered  as  must  have  roused,  or  at  least  ought  to  have 
roused,  the  young  and  beloved  apostle  from  his  supine 
attitude ; therefore,  we  may  suppose  that  Christ  is 
about  to  speak  the  words,  but  has  not  yet  spoken  them. 
The  position  of  Judas  is  caused  by  the  necessity  of 
placing  him  sufficiently  near  to  Christ  to  dip  his  hand 
in  the  same  dish  ; while  to  have  placed  him  on  the 
same  side  of  the  table,  so  as  to  give  him  the  prece- 
dence over  the  more  favored  disciples,  would  have 
appeared  to  the  early  artists  nothing  less  than  profane. 
Giotto  has  paid  great  attention  to  the  heads,  which  are 
individually  characterized,  but  there  is  little  dramatic 
expression ; the  attention  is  not  yet  directed  to  J udas, 
who  is  seen  in  profile,  looking  up,  not  ugly  in  feature, 
but  with  a mean,  vicious  countenance,  and  bent  shoul- 
ders. 

The  arrangement  of  the  table  and  figures,  so  pecu- 
liarly fitted  for  a refectory,  has  been  generally  adopted 
since  the  time  of  Giotto  in  pictures  painted  for  this 

* The  Greek  expression,  “ leaning  on  his  bosom,  or  on  his  lap,” 
is  not,  I believe,  to  be  taken  literally,  being  used  to  signify  an  in- 
timate and  affectionate  intercourse. 


THE  LAST  SUPPER. 


275 

especial  purpose.  The  subject  is  placed  on  the  upper 
wall  of  the  chamber ; the  table  extending  from  side  to 
side  : the  tables  of  the  monks  are  placed,  as  in  the 
dining-rooms  of  our  colleges,  lengthways  ; thus  all  can 
behold  the  divine  assembly,  and  Christ  appears  to  pre- 
side over  and  sanctify  the  meal. 

In  another  Cenacolo  by  Giotto,*  which  forms  one  of 
the  scenes  in  the  history  of  Christ,  ho  has  given  us  a 
totally  different  version  of  the  subject ; and,  not  being 
intended  for  a refectory,  but  as  an  action  or  event,  it  is 
more  dramatic.  It  is  evident  that  our  Saviour  has 
just  uttered  the  words,  <<  He  that  dippeth  with  me  in 
the  dish,  the  same  shall  betray  me.”  Judas,  who  has 
mean,  ugly,  irregular  features,  looks  up  alarmed,  and 
seems  in  the  act  of  rising  to  escape.  One  apostle 
(Philip,  I think)  points  at  him,  and  the  attention  of 
all  is  more  or  less  directed  to  him.  This  would  be  a 
fault  if  the  subject  were  intended  for  a refectory,  or  to 
represent  the  celebration  of  the  Eucharist.  But  here, 
where  the  subject  is  historical,  it  is  a propriety. 

The  composition  of  Duccio  of  Siena,  in  the  Duomo 
at  Siena,  must  have  been  nearly  contemporary  with,  if  it 
did  not  precede,  those  of  Giotto  (a.  d.  1308)  ; it  is 
quite  different,  quite  original  in  motif  and  arrangement. 
Seven  apostles  sit  on  the  same  side  with  Christ,  and 
five  opposite  to  him,  turning  their  backs  on  the  spectator ; 
the  faces  are  seen  in  profile.  The  attitude  of  St.  John, 
leaning  against  our  Saviour  with  downcast  eyes,  is 
much  more  graceful  than  in  the  composition  of  Giotto. 
St.  Peter  is  on  the  right  of  Christ ; next  to  him  St. 
James  Minor : two  young  apostles  sit  at  the  extreme 
ends  of  the  table,  whom  I suppose  to  be  St.  Philip  and 
St.  Thomas  : the  other  apostles  I am  unable  to  discrim- 
inate, with  the  exception  of  Judas,  who,  with  regular 
features,  has  a characteristic  scowl  on  his  brow.  Christ 
holds  out  a piece  of  bread  in  his  hand  ; two  of  the 
apostles  likewise  hold  bread,  and  two  others  hold  a cup ; 


* Florence  Acad. 


276  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

the  rest  look  attentive  or  pensive,  but  the  general  char- 
acter of  the  heads  is  deficient  in  elevation.  The  mo- 
ment chosen  may  be  the  distribution  of  the  bread  and 
wine  ; but  to  me,  it  rather  expresses  the  commencement 
of  the  meal,  and  our  Saviour’s  address  : <<  With  desire 
have  I desired  to  eat  this  passover  with  you  before  I 
suffer.”  (Luke  xxii.  15.)  The  next  compartment  of 
the  same  series,  which  represents  the  apostles  seated 
in  a group  before  Christ,  and  listening  with  upturned 
faces  and  the  most  profound  attention  to  his  last  words, 
has  much  more  of  character,  solemnity,  and  beauty 
than  the  Last  Supper.  Judas  is  here  omitted ; for 
he,  having  received  the  sop,  went  immediately  out.” 

Angelico  da  Fiesole,  in  his  life  of  Christ,  has  been 
careful  to  distinguish  between  the  detection  of  Judas 
and  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist.*  He  has  given 
us  both  scenes.  In  the  first  compartment,  John  is  lean- 
ing down  with  his  face  to  the  Saviour  ; the  back  of  his 
head  only  is  seen,  and  he  appears  too  unmindful  of 
what  is  going  forward.  The  other  apostles  are  well 
discriminated,  the  usual  type  strictly  followed  in  Peter, 
Andrew,  James  Major,  and  James  Minor.  To  the  right 
of  Christ  are  Peter,  Andrew,  Bartholomew ; to  the  left, 
James  Minor.  Pour  turn  their  backs,  and  two  young 
apostles  stand  on  each  side, — I presume  Thomas  and 
Philip  ; they  seem  to  be  waiting  on  the  rest : Judas 
dips  his  hand  in  the  dish.  I suppose  the  moment  to  be 
the  same  as  in  the  composition  of  Duccio. 

But  in  the  next  compartment  the  motif  is  different. 
All  have  risen  from  table ; it  is  no  longer  a repast,  it  is 
a sacred  mystery ; Christ  is  in  the  act  of  administering 
the  bread  to  St.  John ; all  kneel ; and  Judas  is  seen 
kneeling  behind  Christ,  near  an  open  door,  and  apart 
from  the  rest,  as  if  he  were  watching  for  the  opportun- 
ity to  escape.  To  dispose  of  Judas  in  this  holy  cere- 
mony is  always  a difficulty.  To  represent  him  as  re- 

* In  the  series  of  compositions  from  the  life  of  Christ,  now  in 
the  Academy  at  Florence  j beautifully  and  faithfully  engraved  by 
F.  Nocchi. 


THE  LAST  SUPPER. 


277 


ceiving  with  the  rest  the  sacred  rite  is  an  offence  to  th6 
pious.  The  expression  used  by  St.  John  (xii.  30), 
« After  he  had  received  the  sop  he  went  out/'  implies 
that  Judas  was  not  present  at  the  Lord's  Supper,  which 
succeeded  the  celebration  of  the  paschal  supper.  St. 
Luke  and  St.  Mark,  neither  of  whom  were  present, 
leave  us  to  suppose  that  Judas  partook  with  the  other 
disciples  of  the  mystic  bread  and  wine;  yet  we  can 
hardly  believe  that,  after  having  been  pointed  out  aS 
the  betrayer,  the  conscience-stricken  Judas  should  re- 
main to  receive  the  Eucharist.  Sometimes  he  is  omit- 
ted altogether ; sometimes  he  is  stealing  out  at  the 
door.  In  the  composition  of  Luca  Signorelli,  which 
I saw  at  Cortona,  all  the  twelve  apostles  are  kneeling ; 
Christ  is  distributing  the  wafer;  and  Judas,  turning 
away  with  a malignant  look,  puts  h's  wafer  into  his 
satchel.  In  the  composition  of  Palmezzano,  in  the 
Duomo  at  Forli,  our  Saviour  stands,  holding  a plate, 
and  is  in  the  act  of  presenting  the  wafer  to  Peter,  who 
kneels  : St.  John  stands  by  the  side  of  Christ,  holding 
the  cup  : Judas  is  in  the  background  ; he  kneels  by  the 
door,  and  seems  to  be  watching  for  the  opportunity  to 
steal  away. 

The  fine  composition,  fine  also  in  sentiment  and 
character,  of  Ghirlandajo,  was  painted  for  the  small  re- 
fectory in  the  San  Marco  at  Florence.  The  arrange- 
ment is  ingenious  : the  table  is  of  what  we  call  the 
horse-shoe  form,  which  allo  ws  all  the  figures  to  face 
the  spectator ; and  at  the  same  time  takes  up  less  room 
than  where  the  table  runs  across  the  picture  from  side 
to  side.  Judas  sits  in  front,  alone ; Christ  has  just 
designated  him.  “ He  it  is  to  whom  I shall  give  the 
sop  when  I have  dipped  it."  (John  xiii.  26.)  Judas 
holds  the  sop  in  his  hand,  with  an  alarmed  conscious 
look.  Behind  sits  an  ill-omened  cat,  probably  intended 
for  the  fiend.  John,  to  the  left  of  Christ,  appears  to 
have  swooned  away.  The  other  apostles  express,  in 
various  ways,  amazement  and  horror. 

It  has  been  a question  among  critics,  whether  the 


278  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


purse  ought  to  be  placed  in  the  hand  of  Judas  when 
present  at  the  Last  Supper,  because  it  is  usually  under- 
stood as  containing  the  thirty  pieces  of  silver  : but  this 
is  a mistake ; and  it  leads  to  the  mistake  of  represent- 
ing him  as  hiding  the  purse,  as  if  it  contained  the 
price  of  his  treachery.  Judas  carries  the  purse  openly, 
for  he  was  the  steward,  or  purse-bearer,  of  the  party : 
<<  he  had  the  bag,  and  bare  what  was  put  therein  ” 
(John  xii.  6,  xiii.  29)  : and  as  the  money-bag  is  also 
the  attribute  of  St.  Matthew  the  tax-gatherer,  we  must 
take  care  not  to  confound  him  with  the  traitor  and  thief. 
This  brings  me  to  the  consideration  of  the  subject  as 
treated  by  Albert  Diirer. 

In  the  series  of  large  woodcuts  from  the  Passion  of 
our  Saviour  (styled  La  grande  Passion  the  Cena- 
colo  is  an  event,  and  not  a mystery.  John,  as  a beau- 
tiful youth,  is  leaning  against  our  Saviour  with  down- 
cast eyes ; he  does  not  look  as  if  he  had  thrown  him- 
self down  half-asleep,  but  as  if  Christ  had  put  his  arm 
around  him,  and  drawn  and  pressed  him  fondly  towards 
him.  On  the  right  is  Peter  ; the  other  apostles  are  not 
easily  discriminated,  but  they  have  all  that  sort  of 
grandiose  ugliness  which  is  so  full  of  character,  and  so 
particularly  the  characteristic  of  the  artist : the  apostle 
seated  in  front,  in  a cowering  attitude,  holding  the  purse, 
which  he  seems  anxious  to  conceal,  and  looking  up 
apprehensively,  I suppose  to  be  Judas. 

In  the  smaller  set  of  woodcuts  (<<  La  petite  Passion  ”), 
I believe  the  apostle  with  the  purse  in  the  foreground 
to  be  St.  Matthew  ; while  the  ugly,  lank -haired  person- 
age behind  Christ,  who  looks  as  if  about  to  steal  away, 
is  probably  intended  for  Judas  : one  of  the  apostles  has 
laid  hold  of  him,  and  seems  to  say,  Thou  art  the 
man!” 

There  is  a third  Cenacolo,  by  Albert  Diirer,  which 
plainly  represents  the  Eucharist.  The  cup  only  is  on 
the  table,  and  Judas  is  omitted. 

In  a Cenacolo  by  another  old  German,  Judas  is  in 
the  act  of  receiving  the  sop,  which  Christ  is  putting  in- 


THE  LAST  SUPPER, 


279 

to  his  mouth ; and  at  the  same  time  he  is  hiding  the 
purse  : — a mistake,  as  I have  already  observed. 

These  examples  must  suffice  to  give  some  idea  of  the 
manner  in  which  this  subject  was  generally  treated  by 
the  early  German  and  Italian  artists.  But,  whether 
presented  before  us  as  a dramatic  scene  expressing  in- 
dividual character,  or  as  an  historical  event  memorable 
in  the  life  of  Christ,  or  as  a religious  rite  of  awful  and 
mysterious  import,  — all  the  examples  I have  men- 
tioned are  in  some  respects  deficient.  We  have  the 
feeling,  that,  whatever  may  be  the  merit  in  sentiment, 
in  intention,  in  detail,  what  has  been  attempted  has 
not  been  achieved. 

When  Leonardo  da  Yinci,  the  greatest  thinker  as  well 
as  the  greatest  painter  of  his  age,  brought  all  the  re- 
sources of  his  wonderful  mind  to  bear  on  the  subject, 
then  sprang  forth  a creation  so  consummate,  that  since 
that  time  it  has  been  at  once  the  wonder  and  the  de- 
spair of  those  who  have  followed  in  the  same  path. 
True,  the  work  of  his  hand  is  perishing,  — will  soon 
have  perished  utterly.  I remember  well,  standing  be- 
fore this  wreck  of  a glorious  presence,  so  touched  by  its 
pale,  shadowy,  and  yet  divine  significance,  and  by  its 
hopelessly  impending  ruin,  that  the  tears  sprang  invol- 
untarily. Fortunately  for  us,  multiplied  copies  have 
preserved  at  least  the  intention  of  the  artist  in  his  work. 
We  can  judge  of  what  it  has  been,  and  take  that  for 
our  text  and  for  our  theme. 

Tlie  purpose  being  the  decoration  of  a refectory  in  a 
rich  convent,  the  chamber  lofty  and  spacious,  Leonardo 
has  adopted  the  usual  arrangement : the  table  runs 
across  from  side  to  side,  filling  up  the  whole  extent  of 
the  wall,  and  the  figures,  being  above  the  eye,  and  to 
be  viewed  from  a distance,  are  colossal ; they,  would 
otherwise  have  appeared  smaller  than  the  real  person- 
ages seated  at  the  tables  below.  The  moment  selected 
is  the  utterance  of  the  words,  Yerily,  verily,  I say 


28o  sacred  and  legendary  art. 


unto  you,  that  one  of  you  shall  betray  me  : or  rather 
the  words  have  just  been  uttered,  and  the  picture  ex- 
presses their  effect  on  the  different  auditors.  It  is  of 
these  auditors,  his  apostles,  that  I have  to  speak,  and 
not  of  Christ  himself ; for  the  full  consideration  of  the 
subject,  as  it  regards  Hirriy  must  be  deferred ; the  in- 
tellectual elevation,  the  fineness  of  nature,  the  benign 
God-like  dignity,  suffused  with  the  profoundest  sorrow, 
in  this  divine  head,  surpassed  all  I could  have  con- 
ceived as  possible  in  Art ; and,  faded  as  it  is,  the  char- 
acter there,  being  stamped  on  it  by  the  soul,  not  the 
hand,  of  the  artist,  will  remain  while  a line  or  hue  re- 
mains visible.  It  is  a divine  shadow,  and,  until  it 
fades  into  nothing,  and  disappears  utterly,  will  have 
the  lineaments  of  divinity.  Next  to  Christ  is  St. 
John  ; he  has  just  been  addressed  by  Peter,  who 
beckons  to  him  that  he  should  ask  “of  whom  the 
Lord  spake  ” : — his  disconsolate  attitude,  as  he  has 
raised  himself  to  reply,  and  leans  his  clasped  hands 
on  the  table,  the  almost  feminine  sweetness  of  his 
countenance,  express  the  character  of  this  gentle  and 
amiable  apostle.  Peter,  leaning  from  behind,  is  all 
fire  and  energy ; Judas,  who  knows  full  well  of  whom 
the  Saviour  spake,  starts  back  amazed,  oversetting  the 
salt ; his  fingers  clutch  the  bag,  of  which  he  has  the 
charge,  with  that  action  which  Dante  describes  as  char- 
acteristic of  the  avaricious  : — 

“ Questi  risurgeranno  dal  sepolcro 
Col  pugno  chiuso.” 

“ These  from  the  tomb  with  clenched  grasp  shall  rise.” 

His  face  is  seen  in  profile,  and  cast  into  shadow : 
without  being  vulgar,  or  even  ugly,  it  is  hateful.  St, 
Andrew,  with  his  long  gray  beard,  lifts  up  his  hands, 
expressing  the  wonder  of  a simple-hearted  old  man. 
St.  James  Minor,  resembling  the  Saviour  in  his  mild 
features,  and  the  form  of  his  beard  and  hair,  lays  his 
hand  on  the  shoulder  of  St.  Peter,  — the  expression  is, 
“ Can  it  be  possible  ? have  we  heard  aright  1 ” Bar- 


THE  LAST  SUPPER. 


281 

tholomew,  at  tlie  extreme  end  of  the  table,  has  risen 
perturbed  from  his  seat ; he  leans  forward  with  a look 
of  eager  attention,  the  lips  parted ; he  is  impatient  to 
hear  more.  (The  fine  copy  of  Uggione,  in  the  Royal 
Academy,  does  not  give  this  anxious  look,  — he  is  at- 
tentive only.)  On  the  left  of  our  Saviour  is  St.  James 
Major,  who  has  also  a family  resemblance  to  Christ ; 
his  arms  are  outstretched,  he  shrinks  back,  he  repels 
the  thought  with  horror.  The  vivacity  of  the  action 
and  expression  are  wonderfully  true  and  characteristic. 
(Morghen,  the  engraver,  erroneously  supposed  this  to 
represent  St.  Thomas,  and  placed  on  the  border  of  his 
robe  an  inscription  fixing  the  identity ; which  inscrip- 
tion, as  Bossi  asserts,  never  did  exist  in  the  original 
picture.)  St.  Thomas  is  behind  St.  James,  rather 
young,  with  a short  beard ; he  holds  up  his  hand, 
threatening,  — If  there  be  indeed  such  a wretch,  let 
him  look  to  it.”  Philip,  young  and  with  a beautiful 
head,  lays  his  hand  on  his  heart : he  protests  his  love, 
his  truth.  Matthew,  also  beardless,  has  more  elegance, 
as  one  who  belonged  to  a more  educated  class  than  the 
rest ; he  turns  to  Jude  and  points  to  our  Saviour,  as 
if  about  to  repeat  his  words,  Do  you  hear  what  he 
says?”  Simon  and  Jude  sit  together  (Leonardo  has 
followed  the  tradition  which  makes  them  old  and 
brothers) ; Jude  expresses  consternation  ; Simon,  with 
his  hands  stretched  out,  a painful  anxiety. 

To  understand  the  wonderful  skill  with  which  this 
composition  has  been  arranged,  it  ought  to  be  studied 
long  and  minutely ; and,  to  appreciate  its  relative  ex- 
cellence, it  ought  to  be  compared  with  other  produc- 
tions of  the  same  period.  Leonardo  has  contrived  to 
break  the  formality  of  the  line  of  heads  without  any 
apparent  artifice,  and  without  disturbing  the  grand 
simplicity  of  the  usual  order ; and  he  has  vanquished 
the  difficulties  in  regard  to  the  position  of  Judas,  with- 
out making  him  too  prominent.  He  has  imparted  to 
a solemn  scene  sufficient  movement  and  variety  of  ac- 


28.2  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


tion,  without  detracting  from  its  dignity  and  pathos ; 
he  has  kept  the  expression  of  each  head  true  to  the 
traditional  character,  without  exaggeration,  without  ef- 
fort. To  have  done  this,  to  have  been  the  first  to  do 
this,  required  the  far-reaching  philosophic  mind,  not 
less  than  the  excelling  hand,  of  this  “ miracle  of  na- 
ture,^^  as  Mr.  Hallam  styles  Leonardo,  with  reference 
to  his  scientific  as  well  as  his  artistic  powers. 

And  now  to  turn  to  another  miracle  of  nature,  Ea- 
phael.  He  has  given  us  three  compositions  for  the 
Last  Supper.  The  fresco  lately  discovered  in  the  re- 
fectory of  Sant^  Onofrio,  at  Florence,  is  an  early  work 
painted  in  his  twenty-third  year  (a.  d.  150.5).  The 
authenticity  of  this  picture  has  been  vehemently  dis- 
puted ; for  myself  — as  far  as  my  opinion  is  worth 
anything  — I never,  after  the  first  five  minutes,  had  a 
doubt  on  the  subject.  As  to  its  being  the  work  of 
Neri  de’  Bicci,  I do  not  believe  it  possible ; and  as  for 
the  written  documents  brought  forward  to  prove  this,  I 
turn  from  them  to  the  handwriting  on  the  wall,^^  and 
there  I see,  in  characters  of  light,  Eaphael,  — and 
him  only.  It  is,  however,  a youthful  work,  full  of  sen- 
timent and  grace,  but  deficient,  it  appears  to  me,  in 
that  depth  and  discrimination  of  character  displayed 
in  his  later  works.  It  is  evident  that  he  had  studied 
Giotto’s  fresco  in  the  neighboring  Santa  Croce.  The 
arrangement  is  nearly  the  same. 

Christ  is  in  the  centre  ; his  right  hand  is  raised,  and 
he  is  about  to  speak  ; the  left  hand  is  laid,  with  ex- 
treme tenderness  in  the  attitude  and  expression  on  the 
shoulder  of  John,  who  reclines  upon  him.  To  the 
right  of  Christ  is  St.  Peter,  the  head  of  the  usual 
character ; next  to  him  St.  Andrew,  with  the  flowing 
gray  hair  and  long  divided  beard ; St.  James  Minor, 
the  head  declined  and  resembling  Christ : he  holds  a 
cup.  St.  Philip  is  seen  in  profile  with  a white  beard 
(this  is  contrary  to  the  received  tradition,  which  makes 
him  young ; and  I doubt  the  correctness  of  this  appel- 


THE  LAST  SUPPER.  283 

lation).  St.  James  Major,  at  the  extreme  end  of  the 
table,  looks  out  of  the  picture ; Kaphael  has  appar- 
ently represented  himself  in  this  apostle.  On  the  left 
of  Christ,  after  St.  John,  is  St.  Bartholomew;  he  holds 
a knife,  and  has  the  black  beard  and  dark  complexion 
usually  given  to  him.  Then  Matthew,  something  like 
Peter,  but  milder  and  more  refined.  Thomas,  young 
and  handsome,  pours  wine  into  a cup ; last,  on  the 
right,  are  Simon  and  Jude : Kaphael  has  followed 
the  tradition  which  supposes  them  young,  and  the 
kinsmen  of  our  Saviour.  Judas  sits  on  a stool  on 
the  near  side  of  the  table,  opposite  to  Christ,  and 
while  he  dips  his  hand  into  the  dish  he  looks  round 
to  the  spectators  ; he  has  the  Jewish  features,  red  hair 
and  beard,  and  a bad  expression.  All  have  glories ; 
but  the  glory  round  the  head  of  Judas  is  much  smaller 
than  the  others.^ 

In  the  second  composition,  one  of  the  series  of  the 
life  of  Christ,  in  the  Loggie  of  the  Vatican,  Kaphael 
has  placed  the  apostles  round  a table,  four  on  each  of 
the  three  sides  ; our  Saviour  presiding  in  the  centre. 
John  and  Peter,  who  are,  as  usual,  nearest  to  Christ, 
look  to  him  with  an  animated  appealing  expression. 
Judas  is  in  front,  looking  away  from  the  rest,  and  as 
if  about  to  rise.  The  other  heads  are  not  well  dis- 
criminated, nor  is  the  moment  well  expressed  : there 
is,  indeed,  something  confused  and  inharmonious,  un- 
like Kaphael,  in  the  whole  composition.  I pass  it 
over,  therefore,  without  further  remark,  to  come  to 
the  third  example,  — a masterpiece  of  his  later  years, 
worthy  as  a composition  of  being  compared  with  Leo- 
nardo’s ; but,  never  having  been  painted,  we  cau  only 
pronounce  it  perfect  as  far  as  it  goes.  The  original 
drawing  enriches  the  collection  of  the  Queen  of  Eng- 
land : the  admirable  engraving  of  Marc  Antonio,  said 
to  have  been  touched  by  Kaphael,  is  before  me  while  I 

* This  is  also  observable  in  the  Last  Supper  by  Niccolo  Petri  in 
the  San  Francesco  at  Pisa. 


284  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

write.  From  the  disposition  of  the  unshod  feet  as  seen 
under  the  table,  it  is  styled  by  collectors  il  pezzo  dei 
piedi  ” .•  from  the  arrangement  of  the  table  and  figures 
it  was  probably  designed  for  a refectory. 

In  the  centre  is  Christ,  with  both  hands  resting 
on  the  table ; in  the  head,  a melancholy  resignation. 
Peter  is  on  the  right,  his  hand  on  his  breast.  John, 
on  the  left,  places  both  hands  on  his  breast,  with  a 
most  animated  expression,  — “You  cannot  believe  it 
is  I ” Andrew  has  laid  his  hand  on  the  shoulder  of 
Peter,  and  leans  forward  with  a sad  interrogative  ex- 
pression. The  head  of  Judas  has  features  akin  to 
those  of  the  antique  satyr,  with  the  look  askance  of 
a detected  villain  : he  has  heard  the  words,  but  he 
dare  not  meet  the  eye,  of  his  Divine  Master : he  has 
no  purse.  James  Minor,  next  to  John,  with  his  hands 
extended,  seems  to  speak  sadly  to  Philip  : “And  they 
began  to  inquire  among  themselves,  which  of  them 
should  do  this  thing  ? The  whole  composition  is 
less  dramatic,  has  less  variety  of  action  and  attitude, 
than  that  of  Leonardo,  but  is  full  of  deep  melancholy 
feeling. 

The  Cenacolo  of  Andrea  del  Sarto,  in  the  Convent 
of  the  Salvi  near  Florence,  takes,  I believe,  the  third 
rank  after  those  of  Leonardo  and  Raphael.  He  has 
chosen  the  selfsame  moment,  “ One  of  you  shall  be- 
tray me.”  The  figures  are,  as  usual,  ranged  on  one 
side  of  a long  table.  Christ,  in  the  centre,  holds  a 
piece  of  bread  in  his  hand ; on  his  left  is  St.  John, 
and  on  his  right  St.  James  Major,  both  seen  in  profile. 
The  face  of  St.  John  expresses  interrogation  ; that  of 
St.  James,  interrogation  and  a start  of  amazement. 
Next  to  St.  James  are  Peter,  Thomas,  Andrew ; then 
Philip,  who  has  a small  cross  upon  his  breast.  Aftet 
St.  John  come  James  Minor,  Simon,  Jude,  Judas  Is- 
cariot, and  Bartholomew.  J udas,  with  his  hands  folded 
together,  leans  forward,  and  looks  down,  with  a round 
mean  face,  in  which  there  is  no  power  of  any  kind, 


THE  LAST  SUPPEH 


28s 

not  even  of  malignity.  In  passing  almost  immediately 
from  the  Cenacolo  in  the  St.  Onofrio  to  that  in  the 
Salvi,  we  feel  strongly  all  the  difference  between  the 
mental  and  moral  superiority  of  Raphael  at  the  age 
of  twenty,  and  the  artistic  greatness  of  Andrea  in  the 
maturity  of  his  age  and  talent.  This  fresco  deserves, 
its  high  celebrity.  It  is  impossible  to  look  on  it  with- 
out admiration,  considered  as  a work  of  art.  The 
variety  of  the  attitudes,  the  disposition  of  the  limbs 
beneath  the  table,  the  ample,  tasteful  draperies,  deserve 
the  highest  praise  ; but  the  heads  are  deficient  in  char- 
acter and  elevation,  and  the  whole  composition  wants 
that  solemnity  of  feeling  proper  to  the  subject. 

The  Cenacolo  of  Titian,  painted  for  Philip  II.  for 
the  altar  of  his  chapel  in  the  Escurial,  is  also  a notable 
example  of  the  want  of  proper  reverential  feeling  : two 
servants  are  in  attendance ; Judas  is  in  front,  averting 
his  head,  which  is  in  deep  shadow ; a dog  is  under  the 
table,  and  the  Holy  Ghost  is  descending  from  above. 

Niccolo  Poussin  has  three  times  painted  the  Cena- 
colo. In  the  two  series  of  the  Seven  Sacraments,  he 
has,  of  course,  represented  the  institution  of  the  Eu- 
charist, as  proper  to  liis  subject ; in  both  instances,  in 
that  pure  and  classical  taste  proper  to  himself.  In  the 
best  and  largest  composition,  the  apostles  are  reclining 
on  couches  round  the  table.  Christ  holds  a plate  full 
of  bread,  and  appears  as  saying  <<  Take,  eat.”  Pour 
are  putting  the  morsel  into  their  mouths.  Judas  is 
seen  behind,  with  an  abject  look,  stealing  out  of  the 
room. 

The  faults  which  I have  observed  in  pictures  of  this 
subject  are  chiefly  met  with  in  the  Venetian,  Flemish, 
and  later  Bolognese  schools.  When  the  motif  selected 
is  the  institution  of  the  Eucharist,  it  is  a fault  to  sacri- 
fice the  solemnity  and  religious  import  of  the  scene  in 
order  to  render  it  more  dramatic : it  ought  not  to  be 
dramatic  ; but  the  pervading  sentiment  should  be  one. 


286  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

a deep  and  awful  reverence.  When  Christ  is  distribut- 
ing the  bread  and  wine,  the  apostles  should  not  be 
conversing  with  each  other ; nor  should  the  figures 
exceed  twelve  in  number,  for  it  appears  to  me  that 
the  introduction  of  Judas  disturbs  the  sacred  harmony 
and  tranquillity  of  the  scene.  When  the  motif  is  the 
celebration  of  the  Passover,  or  the  detection  of  Judas, 
a more  dramatic  and  varied  arrangement  is  necessary ; 
but,  here,  to  make  the  apostles  intent  on  eating  and 
drinking,  as  in  some  old  German  pictures,  is  a fault. 
Even  Albano  has  represented  one  of  the  apostles  as 
peeping  into  an  empty  wine-pitcher  with  a disappointed 
look. 

It  appears  to  me,  also,  a gross  fault  to  introduce 
dogs  and  cats,  and  other  animals  ; although  I have 
heard  it  observed,  that  a dog  gnawing  a bone  is  intro- 
duced with  propriety,  to  show  that  the  supper  is  over, 
the  Paschal  Lamb  eaten,  before  the  moment  repre- 
sented. 

Vulgar  heads,  taken  from  vulgar  models,  or  selected 
without  any  regard  either  to  the  ancient  types,  or  the 
traditional  character  of  the  different  apostles,  are  de- 
fects of  frequent  occurrence,  especially  in  the  older 
German  schools ; and  in  Titian,  Paul  Veronese,  and 
Kubens,  even  where  the  heads  are  otherwise  fine  and 
expressive,  the  Scriptural  truth  of  character  is  in  gen- 
eral sacrificed. 

It  is  a fault,  as  I have  already  observed,  to  represent 
Judas  anxiously  concealing  the  purse. 

Holbein,  in  his  famous  Last  Supper,  at  Basle,  and  in 
the  small  one  in  the  Louvre,  has  adopted  the  usual  ar- 
rangement : the  heads  all  want  elevation ; but  here  the 
attention  fixes  at  once  upon  Judas  Iscariot,  — the  very 
ideal  of  scoimdrelism,  — I can  use  no  other  word  to 
express  the  unmitigated  ugliness,  vulgarity,  and  bru- 
tality of  the  face.  Lavater  has  referred  to  it  as  an 
example  of  the  physiognomy  proper  to  cruelty  and 


THE  LAST  SUPPER. 


287 


avarice  ; but  the  dissimulation  is  wanting.  This  base, 
eager,  hungry-looking  villain  stands  betrayed  by  his 
own  looks  : he  is  too  prominent ; he  is  in  fact  the 
principal  figure ; — a fault  in  taste,  feeling,  and  pro- 
priety. 

The  introduction  of  a great  number  of  figures,  as 
spectators  or  attendants,  is  a fault ; excusable,  perhaps, 
where  the  subject  is  decorative  and  intended  for  the 
wall  of  a refectory,  but  not  otherwise.  In  the  compo- 
sition of  Paul  Veronese,  there  are  twenty-three  figures ; 
in  that  of  Zucchero,  forty-five ; in  that  of  Baroccio, 
twenty-one.  These  supernumerary  persons  detract  from 
the  dignity  and  solemnity  of  the  scene. 

Tintoretto  has  introduced  several  spectators,  and 
among  them  an  old  woman  spinning  in  a corner, 
who,  while  she  turns  her  spindle,  looks  on  with  an 
observant  eye.  This  alludes  to  an  early  tradition, 
that  the  Last  Supper  was  eaten  in  the  house  of  Mary, 
the  mother  of  Mark  the  Evangelist.  But  it  is  no- 
where said  that  she  was  present,  and  therefore  it  is 
an.  impropriety  to  introduce  her.  Magnificent  archi- 
tecture, as  in  the  picture  by  B.  Peruzzi  (who,  by 
the  way,  was  an  architect),  seems  objectionable  : but 
equally  unsuitable  is  the  poor  dismantled  garret  in 
this  picture  of  Tintoretto  ; for  the  chamber  in  which 
the  scene  took  place  was  **  the  guest-chamber,^^  a large 
upper  room,  ready  prepared  ; and  as  it  was  afterwards 
the  scene  of  the  Pentecost,  it  must  have  held  more 
than  a hundred  persons. 

It  is  a fault,  as  I have  already  observed,  to  represent 
John  as  asleep  on  the  breast  or  the  shoulder  of  our 
Saviour. 

Though  countenanced  by  the  highest  authorities  in 
Art,  I believe  it  must  be  considered  as  a fault,  or  at 
least  a mistake,  to  represent  our  Saviour  and  his  apos- 


288  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


ties  as  seated,  instead  of  reclining  round  the  table.  It 
is  a fault,  not  merely  because  the  use  of  the  triclinium 
or  couch  at  all  social  meals  was  general  in  the  antique 
times,  — for  the  custom  of  sitting  upright  was  not  so 
entirely  extinct  among  the  Jews  but  that  it  might  on 
any  other  occasion  have  been  admissible,  — but,  from 
peculiar  circumstances,  it  became  in  this  instance  an 
impropriety.  We  know  that  when  the  Passover  was 
first  instituted  the  Jews  were  enjoined  to  eat  it  stand- 
ing, as  men  in  haste,  with  girded  loins  and  sandalled 
feet : but  afterwards  it  was  made  imperative  that  they 
should  eat  it  in  an  attitude  of  repose,  lying  upon 
couches,  and  as  men  at  ease  ; and  the  reason  for 
this  was,  that  all  the  circumstances  of  the  meal,  and 
particularly  the  attitude  in  which  it  was  eaten,  should 
indicate  the  condition  of  security  and  freedom  which 
the  Israelites  enjoyed  after  their  deliverance  from  the 
Egyptian  bondage.  In  the  then  imperfect  state  of 
Biblical  criticism,  this  fact  seems  to  have  been  un- 
known to  the  earlier  artists,  or  disregarded  by  those 
who  employed  and  directed  them.  Among  modem 
artists,  Poussin  and  Le  Sueur  have  scrupulously  at- 
tended to  it,  even  when  the  moment  chosen  is  the 
mystical  distribution  of  the  bread  and  wine  which 
succeeded  the  Paschal  Supper.  Commentators  have 
remarked,  that  if  Christ  and  his  disciples  reclined  at 
table,  then,  supposing  Christ  to  have  the  central  place 
of  honor,  the  head  of  John  would  have  been  near  to 
the  bosom  of  Christ : but  under  these  circumstances, 
if  Judas  were  sufficiently  near  to  receive  the  sop  from 
the  hand  of  Christ,  then  he  must  have  reclined  next  to 
him  on  the  other  side,  and  have  taken  precedence  of 
Peter.  This  supposed  a propinquity  which  the  early 
Christian  artists  deemed  offensive  and  inadmissible. 

In  the  composition  by  Stradano  the  arrangement  of 
the  table  and  figures  is  particularly  well  managed  : all 
recline  on  couches  : in  the  centre  of  the  table  is  a dish, 
to  which  Christ  extends  his  hand,  and  Judas,  who  is 


THE  LAST  SUPPER. 


289 

here  rather  handsome  than  otherwise,  at  the  same  time 
stretehes  forth  his  ; the  moment  is  evidently,  He  that 
dippeth  with  me  in  the  dish,  the  same  shall  betray 
me/^  Two  circumstances  spoil  this  picture,  and  bring 
it  down  to  the  level  of  the  vulgar  and  the  common- 
place. In  the  background  is  seen  a kitchen  and  the 
cooking  of  the  supper.  Under  Judas  crouches  a hide- 
ous demon,  with  horns,  hoof,  and  tail,  visible  only  to 
the.  spectator. 

When  the  Cenacolo  represents  the  Eucharist,  it  is, 
perhaps,  allowable  to  introduce  angels,  because  it  was, 
and  I believe  is,  an  established  belief,  that,  visible  or 
invisible,  they  are  always  present  at  the  Sacrament. 
The  Holy  Ghost  descending  from  above  is  unsanc- 
tioned by  Scripture,  but  may  serve  to  mark  the  mys- 
tical and  peculiar  solemnity  of  the  moment  chosen  for 
representation.  It  may  signify,  “ He  that  receiveth 
me,  receiveth  Him  that  sent  me.’^  But  where  angels 
attend,  or  where  the  Spiritual  Comforter  comes  floating 
down  from  above,  then  the  presence  of  Judas,  or  of 
any  superfluous  figures  as  spectators  or  servitors,  or 
of  dogs  or  other  animals,  becomes  a manifest  impro- 
priety. 

The  introduction  of  the  Devil  in  person  as  tempting 
Judas  is  rendered  pardonable  by  the  naivete  of  the  early 
painters  : in  the  later  schools  of  art  it  is  offensive  and 
ridiculous. 

The  Cenacolo  of  Baroccio,  painted  by  order  of 
Clement  YIII.  (1594)  for  his  family  chapel  in  the 
Santa  Maria-sopra-Minerva,  is  remarkable  for  an  anec- 
dote relating  to  it.  Baroccio,  who  was  not  eminent 
for  a correct  taste,  had  in  his  first  sketch  reverted  to 
the  ancient  fashion  of  placing  Satan  close  behind  Ju- 
das, whispering  in  his  ear,  and  tempting  him  to  betray 
his  Master.  The  Pope  expressed  his  dissatisfaction,  — 
die  non  gli  piaceva  il  demonio  si  dimesticasse  tanto  con 
Gesii  Cristo”  — and  ordered  him  to  remove  the  offen- 
sive figure.  This  is  not  the  last  example  of  the  an- 

19 


290 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


cient  manner  of  treatment.  In  the  Cenacolo  of  Fran- 
ceschini,  painted  nearly  a century  later,  two  angels  are 
attending  on  the  sacred  repast,  while  Judas  is  in  the 
act  of  leaving  the  room,  conducted  by  Satan  in  person. 

It  is  surely  a fault,  in  a scene  of  such  solemn  and 
sacred  import,  to  make  the  head  of  Judas  a vehicle  for 
public  or  private  satire,  by  giving  him  the  features  of 
some  obnoxious  personage  of  the  time.*  This,  ac- 
cording to  tradition,  has  been  done  in  some  instances. 
Perhaps  the  most  remarkable  example  that  could  be 
cited  is  the  story  of  Andrea  del  Castagno,  who,  after 
having  betrayed  and  assassinated  his  friend  Domenico 
Veneziano,  painted  himself  in  the  character  of  Judas  : 
a curious  instance  of  remorse  of  conscience. 

Volumes  might  be  written  on  the  subject  of  the 
Last  Supper.  It  extends  before  me,  as  I think  and 
write,  into  endless  suggestive  associations,  which,  for 
the  present,  I dare  not  follow  out : but  I shall  have 
occasion  to  return  to  it  hereafter.f 


St.  Barnabas. 

Ital.  San  Barnabi.  Fr.  Saint  Bamab4.  June  11. 

St.  Barnabas  is  usually  entitled  the  Apostle  Bar- 
nabas, because  he  was  associated  with  the  Apostles 
in  their  high  calling ; and,^'  according  to  Lardner, 
though  without  that  large  measure  of  inspiration 
and  high  authority  which  was  peculiar  to  the  Twelve 
Apostles,  properly  so  called,  yet  he  is  to  be  considered 
as  Apostolical y and  next  to  them  in  sanctity.  For  this 
reason  I place  him  here. 

St.  Barnabas  was  a Levite,  bom  in  the  island  of 

* Bor  a signal  example,  see  Stirling’s  “ Artists  of  Spain,”  p.  493. 
t For  some  remarks  on  the  subject  of  the  Pentecost,  see  “ Le- 
gends of  the  Madonna.” 


ST.  BARNABAS. 


291 


Cyprus,  and  the  cousin-german  of  Mark  the  Evan- 
gelist. The  notices  of  his  life  and  character  scattered 
through  the  Acts  invest  him  with  great  personal  in- 
terest. He  it  was  who,  after  the  conversion  of  Paul, 
was  the  first  to  believe  in  his  sincerity,  and  took  cour- 
age to  present  him  to  the  other  apostles,  who  were 
afraid  of  him,  and  would  not  believe  that  he  was  a 
disciple.”  (Acts  xv.  39.)  Barnabas  afterwards  be- 
came the  fellow-laborer  of  Paul,  and  attended  him  to 
Antioch.  We  are  told  that  he  was  a good  man, 
full  of  the  Holy  Ghost  and  of  faith  ” ; and  to  this  the 
legendary  traditions  add,  that  he  was  a man  of  a most 
comely  countenance,  of  a noble  presence,  grave  and 
commanding  in  his  step  and  deportment ; and  thence, 
when  he  and  Paul  were  at  Lystra  together,  “ they 
called  Barnabas  Jupiter,  and  Paul  Mercurius.”  Sub- 
sequently, however,  Paul  and  Barnabas  fell  into  a dis- 
pute concerning  Mark,  and  separated.  The  tradition 
relates  that  Barnabas  and  Mark  remained  for  some 
time  together,  being  united  by  the  ties  of  friendship, 
as  well  as  by  those  of  kindred.  Barnabas  preached 
the  Gospel  in  Asia  Minor,  Greece,  and  Italy ; and 
there  is  an  old  legendary  tradition  that  he  was  the 
first  bishop  of  Milan.  The  legend  also  relates  that 
everywhere  he  carried  with  him  the  Gospel  of  St. 
Matthew,  written  by  the  hand  of  the  Evangelist, 
preaching  what  was  written  therein ; and  when  any 
were  sick,  or  possessed,  he  laid  the  sacred  writing  upon 
their  bosom,  and  they  were  healed ; (a  beautiful  alle- 
gory this !)  and  it  happened  that  as  he  preached  in  a 
synagogue  of  Judasa  against  the  Jews,  they  were  seized 
with  fury,  and  took  him  and  put  him  to  a cruel  death. 
But  Mark  and  the  other  Christians  buried  him  with 
many  tears. 

The  body  of  St.  Barnabas  remained  in  its  place  of 
sepulture  till  the  days  of  the  Emperor  Zeno,  when, 
according  to  Nicephorus,  it  was  revealed  in  a dream 
to  Antemius,  that  the  apostle  rested  in  a certain  spot, 
and  would  be  found  there,  with  the  Gospel  of  St.  Mat- 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


292 

ttew  lying  on  his  bosom.  And  so  it  happened : the 
remains  were  found ; the  Gospel  was  carried  to  the 
emperor  at  Constantinople ; and  a church  was  built, 
dedicated  to  St.  Barnabas. 

It  is,  I presume,  in  consequence  of  his  being  the 
kinsman  of  St.  Mark,  that  Barnabas  is  more  popular 
at  Venice  tlian  elsewhere,  and  that  devotional  figures 
of  him  are  rarely  found  except  in  Venetian  pictures. 
He  is  represented  as  a man  of  majestic  presence,  hold- 
ing in  his  hand  the  Gospel  of  St.  Matthew,  as  in  a fine 
picture  by  Bonifazio  : in  his  church  at  Venice  he  is 
represented  over  the  high  altar,  throned  as  bishop, 
wliile  St.  Peter  stands  below. 

He  often  occurs  in  subjects  taken  from  the  Acts  and 
the  life  of  St.  Paul.  In  the  scene  in  which  he  pre- 
sents Paul  to  the  other  apostles,  he  is  the  principal 
personage  ; but  in  the  scene  at  Paphos,  where  Elymas 
is  struck  blind,  and  at  Lystra,  he  is  always  secondary 
to  his  great  companion. 


THE  DOCTORS  OF  THE  CHURCH. 


L — THE  FOUR  LATIN  FATHERS. 

HE  Evangelists  and  the  Apostles  represented 
in  Art  the  Spiritual  Church,  and  took  their 
place  among  the  heavenly  influences.  The 
great  Fathers  or  Doctors  were  the  represent- 
atives of  the  Church  Militant  on  earth  : as  teachers 
and  pastors,  as  logicians  and  advocates,  they  wrote, 
argued,  contended,  suffered,  and  at  length,  after  a 
long  and  fierce  struggle  against  opposing  doctrines, 
they  fixed  the  articles  of  faith  thereafter  received  in 
Christendom.  For  ages,  and  down  to  the  present 
time,  the  prevailing  creed  has  been  that  which  was 
founded  on  the  interpretations  of  these  venerable  per- 
sonages. They  have  become,  in  consequence,  frequent 
and  important  subjects  of  Art,  particularly  from  the 
tenth  century,  — the  period  when,  in  their  personal 
character,  they  began  to  be  regarded  not  merely  as 
gifted  and  venerable,  but  as  divinely  inspired ; their 
writings  appealed  to  as  infallible,  their  arguments  ac- 
cepted as  demonstration.  We  distinguish  them  as  the 
Latin  and  the  Greek  Fathers.  In  Western  Art,  we 
find  the  Latin  Fathers  perpetually  grouped  together, 
or  in  a series  : the  Greek  Fathers  seldom  occur  except 
in  their  individual  character,  as  saints  rather  than  as 
teachers. 


294  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

The  four  Latin  Doctors  are  St.  Jerome,  St.  Am- 
brose, St.  Augustine,  and  St.  Gregory.  When  repre- 
sented together,  they  are  generally  distinguished  from 
each  other,  and  from  the  sacred  personages  who  may 
be  grouped  in  the  same  picture,  by  their  conventional 
attributes.  Thus  St.  Jerome  is  sometimes  habited  in 
the  red  hat  and  crimson  robes  of  a cardinal,  with  a 
church  in  his  hand ; or  he  is  a half-naked,  bald-headed, 
long-bearded,  emaciated  old  man,  with  eager,  wasted 
features,  holding  a book  and  pen,  and  attended  by  a 
lion.  St.  Ambrose  wears  the  episcopal  robes  as  bishop 
of  Milan,  with  mitre  and  crosier,  and  holds  his  book ; 
sometimes,  also,  he  carries  a knotted  scourge,  and  a 
bee-hive  is  near  him.  St.  Augustine  is  also  habited 
as  a bishop,  and  carries  a book ; he  has  often  books  at 
his  feet,  and  sometimes  a flaming  heart  transpierced  by 
an  arrow.  The  origin  and  signification  of  these  sym- 
bols I shall  explain  presently. 

In  the  most  ancient  churches  the  Four  Doctors  are 
placed  after  the  Evangelists.  In  the  later  churches 
they  are  seen  combined  or  grouped  with  the  Evan- 
gelists, occasionally  also  with  the  sibyls  ; but  this 
seems  a mistake.  The  appropriate  place  of  the  sibyls 
is  neither  with  the  Evangelists  nor  the  Fathers,  but 
among  the  prophets,  where  Michael  Angelo  has  placed 
them. 

Where  the  principal  subject  is  the  glory  of  Christ, 
or  the  coronation  or  assumption  of  ^ the  Virgin,  the 
Four  Fathers  attend  with  their  books  as  witnesses  and 
interpreters. 

1.  A conspicuous  instance  of  this  treatment  is  the 
dome  of  San  Giovanni  at  Parma.  In  the  centre  is 
the  ascension  of  Christ,  around  are  the  twelve  apostles 
gazing  upwards  ; below  them,  in  the  spandrils  of  the 
arches,  as  if  bearing  record,  are  the  Four  Evangelists, 
each  with  a Doctor  of  the  Church  seated  by  him  as 
interpreter : St.  Matthew  is  attended  by  St.  Jerome ; 


THE  FOUR  LATIN  FATHERS. 


295 

St.  Mark,  by  St.  Gregory;  St.  Luke,  by  St.  Augus- 
tine ; and  St.  John,  by  St.  Ambrose. 

2.  A picture  in  the  Louvre  by  Pier-Francesco  Sacchi 
(a.  d.  1640)  represents  the  Four  Doctors,  attended,  or 
rather  inspired,  by  the  mystic  symbols  of  the  Four 
Evangelists.  They  are  seated  at  a table,  under  a 
canopy  sustained  by  slender  pillars,  and  appear  in 
deep  consultation : near  St.  Augustine  is  the  eagle ; 
St.  Gregory  has  the  ox ; St.  Jerome,  the  angel ; and 
St.  Ambrose,  the  lion. 

3.  In  a well-known  woodcut  after  Titian,  <<  The 
Triumph  of  Christ,”  the  Redeemer  is  seated  in  a 
car  drawn  by  the  Four  Evangelists  ; while  the  Four 
Latin  Doctors,  one  at  each  wheel,  put  forth  all  their 
strength  to  urge  it  on.  The  patriarchs  and  prophets 
precede,  the  martyrs  and  confessors  of  the  faith  follow, 
in  grand  procession. 

4.  In  a Coronation  of  the  Virgin,  very  singularly 
treated,  we  have  Christ  and  the  Virgin  on  a high  plat- 
form or  throne,  sustained  by  columns ; in  the  space 
underneath,  between  these  columns,  is  a group  of  un- 
winged angels,  holding  the  instruments  of  the  Passion. 
(Or,  as  I have  sometimes  thought,  this  beautiful  group 
may  be  the  souls  of  the  Innocents,  their  proper  place 
being  under  the  throne  of  Christ.)  On  each  side  a vast 
company  of  prophets,  apostles,  saints,  and  martyrs, 
ranged  tier  above  tier.  Immediately  in  front,  and  on 
the  steps  of  the  throne,  are  the  Four  Evangelists,  seated 
each  with  his  symbol  and  book  : behind  them  the  Four 
Fathers,  also  seated.  This  picture,  which  as  a painting 
is  singularly  beautiful,  the  execution  finished,  and  the 
heads  most  characteristic  and  expressive,  may  be  said 
to  comprise  a complete  system  of  the  theology  of  the 
middle  ages.* 

5.  We  have  the  same  idea  carried  out  in  the  lower 
part  of  Raphael’s  Disputa  in  the  Vatican.  The  Four 
Doctors  are  in  the  centre  of  what  may  be  called  the 
sublunary  part  of  the  picture  : they  are  the  only  seated 

* Acad.  Venice.  Giovanni  ed  Antonio  da  Murano.  1440. 


296  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

figures  in  the  vast  assembly  of  holy,  wise,  and  learned 
men  around ; St.  Gregory  and  St.  Jerome  on  the  right 
of  the  altar,  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine  on  the 
left.  As  the  two  latter  wear  the  same  paraphernalia, 
they  are  distinguished  by  having  books  scattered  at 
their  feet,  on  which  are  inscribed  the  titles  of  their 
respective  works. 

The  Madonna  and  Child  enthroned,  with  the  Doc- 
tors of  the  Church  standing  on  each  side,  is  a sub- 
ject which  has  been  often,  and  sometimes  beautifully, 
treated  •,  and  here  the  contrast  between  all  we  can  con- 
ceive of  virginal  and  infantine  loveliness  and  innocence 
enshrined  in  heavenly  peace  and  glory  — and  these  sol- 
emn, bearded,  grand-looking  old  Fathers,  attending  in 
humble  reverence,  as  types  of  earthly  wisdom  — ought 
to  produce  a magnificent  effect,  when  conceived  in  the 
right  spirit.  I can  remember,  however,  but  few  in- 
stances in  w'hich  the  treatment  is  complete  and  satis- 
factory. 

1.  One  of  these  is  a picture  by  A.  Vivarini  (a.  d. 
1446),  now  in  the  Academy  at  Venice.  Here,  the 
Virgin  sits  upon  a throne  under  a rich  canopy  sus- 
tained by  four  little  angels.  She  looks  out  of  the 
picture  with  a most  dignified,  tranquil,  goddess-like 
expression ; she  wears,  as  usual,  the  crimson  tunic 
and  blue  mantle,  the  latter  being  of  a most  brilliant 
azure ; on  her  brow,  a magnificent  jewelled  crown ; 
the  Divine  Child  stands  on  her  knee,  and  raises  his 
little  hand  to  bless  the  worshipper.  To  the  right  of 
the  Virgin,  and  on  the  platform  of  her  throne,  stands 
St.  Jerome,  robed  as  cardinal,  and  bearing  his  church ; 
with  St.  Gregory,  habited  as  Pope.  To  the  left  stands 
St.  Ambrose,  holding  his  crosier  and  knotted  scourge, 
and  St.  Augustine  with  his  book.  This  is  a wonder- 
ful picture,  and,  as  a specimen  of  the  early  Vrrietian 
school,  unequalled.  The  accuracy  of  imitation,  the 
dazzling  color,  the  splendid  dresses  and  accessories,  the 
grave  beauty  of  the  Madonna,  the  divine  benignity  of 


THE  FOUR  LATIN  FATHERS. 


297 

the  Infant  Redeemer,  and  the  sternly  thoughtful  heads 
of  the  old  Doctors,  are  not  only  positively  fine,  but 
have  a relative  interest  and  value  as  being  stamped 
with  that  very  peculiar  character  which  belonged  to 
the  Yivarini  and  their  immediate  followers.  It  was 
painted  for  the  Scuola  della  Carita.^ 

2.  A different  and  a singular  treatment  of  the  Four 
Fathers  occurs  in  another  Venetian  picture. t Christ 
is  represented  seated  on  a throne,  and  disputing  with 
the  Jewish  doctors,  who  are  eagerly  arguing  or  search- 
ing their  books.  In  front  of  the  composition  stand  St. 
Jerome,  St.  Ambrose,  St.  Augustine,  and  St.  Gregory ; 
who,  with  looks  fixed  on  the  youthful  Saviour,  appear 
to  be  reverentially  listening  to,  and  recording,  his 
words.  This  wholly  poetical  and  ideal  treatment  of 
a familiar  passage  in  the  life  of  Christ  I have  never 
seen  but  in  this  one  instance. 

3.  A third  example  is  a picture  by  Moretto,  of  ex- 
traordinary beauty.^  The  Virgin  sits  on  a lofty  throne, 
to  which  there  is  an  ascent  of  several  steps  ; the  Child, 
stands  on  her  right ; she  presses  him  to  her  with  ma- 
ternal tenderness,  and  his  arms  are  round  her  neck. 
At  the  foot  of  the  throne  stand  St.  Ambrose  with  his 
scourge,  and  St.  Augustine ; St.  Gregory,  wearing  the 
papal  tiara,  and  without  a beard,  is  seated  on  a step  of 
the  throne,  holding  an  open  book ; and  St.  Jerome, 

* As  I have  frequent  occasion  to  refer  to  pictures  painted  for 
the  Scuole  of  Venice,  it  may  be  as  well  to  observe  that  the  word 
scuola^  which  we  translate  school.,  is  not  a place  of  education, 
but  a confraternity  for  charitable  purposes,  — visiting  the  sick, 
providing  hospitals,  adopting  orphans,  redeeming  prisoners  and 
captives,  &c.  In  the  days  of  the  republic  these  schools  were 
richly  supported  and  endowed,  and  the  halls,  churches,  and 
chapels  attached  to  them  were  often  galleries  of  art : such  were 
the  schools  of  St.  Mark,  St.  Ursula,  St.  Roch,  the  Cariti,  and 
others.  Unhappily,  they  exist  no  longer ; the  French  seized  on 
their  funds,  and  Austria  does  not  like  confraternities  of  any  kind. 
The  Scuola  della  Carita  is  now  the  Academy  of  Arts. 

t Acad.  Venice.  Gio.  da  Udine. 

J Frankfort  Museum. 


298  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

kneeling  on  one  knee,  points  to  a passage  in  it ; he 
wears  the  cardinal’s  dress  complete.  This  picture  is 
worthy  of  Titian  in  the  richness  of  the  effect,  with  a 
more  sober  grandeur  in  the  color.  The  Virgin  is  too 
much  like  a portrait ; this  is  the  only  fault.^ 

In  the  Chapel  of  San  Lorenzo,  in  the  Vatican,  An- 
gelico has  painted  eight  Doctors  of  the  Church,  single 
majestic  figures  standing  under  Gothic  canopies.  Ac- 
cording to  the  names  now  to  be  seen  inscribed  on  the 
pedestals  beneath,  these  figures  represent  St.  Jerome,t 
St.  Ambrose,  St.  Augustine,  St.  Gregory,  St.  Athana- 
sius, St.  Leo,  St.  John  Chrysostom,  and  St.  Thomas 
Aquinas.  St.  John  Chrysostom  and  St.  Athanasius 
represent  the  Greek  doctors.  St.  Leo,  who  saved 
Eome  from  Attila,  is  with  peculiar  propriety  placed 
in  the  Vatican  ; and  St.  Thomas  Aquinas,  the  angelic 
doctor,  naturally  finds  a place  in  a chapel  painted  by  a 
Dominican  for  a Pope  who  particularly  favored  the 
Dominicans,  — Nicholas  V. 

The  Pour  Fathers  communing  on  the  mystery  of 
the  Trinity,  or  the  Immaculate  Conception,  were  fa- 
vorite subjects  in  the  beginning  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  when  Church  pictures,  instead  of  being  relig- 
ious and  devotional,  became  more  and  more  theologi- 
cal. There  is  an  admirable  picture  of  this  subject  by 
Dosso  Dossi.f;  Above  is  seen  the  Messiah,  as  Creator, 

* We  missed  the  opportunity,  now  never  more  to  be  recalled,  of 
obtaining  this  admirable  picture  when  it  was  sold  out  of  the  Fesch 
collection. 

t I believe  the  figure  called  St.  Bonaventura  to  represent  St. 
Jerome,  because,  in  accordance  with  the  usual  scheme  of  ecclesi- 
astical decoration,  the  greatest  of  the  four  Latin  fathers  would 
take  the  first  place,  and  the  cardinal’s  hat  and  the  long  flowing 
beard  are  his  proper  attribute  5 whereas  there  is  no  example  of  a 
St.  Bonaventura  with  a beard,  or  wearing  the  monastic  habit  with- 
out the  Franciscan  cord.  The  Arundel  Society  have  engraved  this 
fine  figure  under  the  name  of  St.  Bonaventura. 

X Dresden  Gal. 


THE  FOUR  LATIN  FATHERS. 


299 

in  a glory ; he  lays  his  hand  on  the  head  of  the  Vir- 
gin, who  kneels  in  deep  humility  before  him  ; St. 
Gregory  sits  in  profound  thought,  a pen  in  one  hand, 
a tablet  in  the  other ; St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine 
are  similarly  engaged ; St.  Jerome,  to  whom  alone  the 
celestial  vision  appears  to  be  visible,  is  looking  up  with 
awe  and  wonder.  Guido,  in  a celebrated  picture,*  has 
represented  the  Doctors  of  the  Church  communing  on 
the  Immaculate  Conception  of  the  Virgin.  The  fig- 
ures are  admirable  for  thoughtful  depth  of  character  in 
the  expression,  and  for  the  noble  arrangement  of  the 
draperies  ; above  is  seen  the  Virgin,  floating  amid 
clouds,  in  snow-white  drapery,  and  sustained  by  an- 
gels ; visible,  however,  to  St.  Jerome  and  St.  Ambrose 
only. 

Rubens  has  treated  the  Fathers  several  times ; the 
colossal  picture  in  the  Grosvenor  Gallery  is  well  known, 
where  they  appear  before  us  as  moving  along  in  a 
grand  procession : St.  Jerome  comes  last  (he  should 
be  first ; but  on  these  points  Rubens  was  not  partic- 
ular) : he  seems  in  deep  contemplation,  enveloped  in 
the  rich  scarlet  robes  of  a cardinal  of  the  seventeenth 
century,  and  turning  the  leaves  of  his  great  book.  In 
another  picture  we  have  the  Four  Fathers  seated,  dis- 
cussing the  mystery  of  the  Eucharist ; St.  Jerome 
points  to  a passage  in  the  Scriptures ; St.  Gregory  is 
turning  the  page ; they  appear  to  be  engaged  in  argu- 
ment ; the  other  two  are  listening  earnestly.  There  is 
another  picture  by  Rubens  in  which  the  usual  attributes 
of  the  Fathers  are  borne  aloft  by  angels,  while  they  sit 
communing  below. 

These  examples  will  suffice  to  give  a general  idea  of 
the  manner  in  which  the  four  great  Doctors  of  the 
Western  Church  are  grouped  in  devotional  pictures. 
We  will  now  consider  them  separately,  each  according 
to  his  individual  character  and  history. 


Imp.  Gal.,  St.  Petersburg. 


300  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


St.  Jerome. 


Lat.  Sanctus  Hieronymus.  Ital.  Geronimo  or  Girolamo.  Fr. 
Saint  Jerome,  Hierome,  or  Geroisme.  Ger.  Der  Heilige  Hiero- 
nimus.  Patron  of  scholars  and  students,  and  more  particularly 
of  students  in  theology.  Sept.  30,  a.  d.  420. 

Of  the  four  Latin  Doctors,  St.  Jerome,  as  a subject 
of  painting,  is  by  far  the  most  popular.  The  reasons 
for  this  are  not  merely  the  exceedingly  interesting  and 
striking  character  of  the  man,  and  the  picturesque  inci- 
dents of  his  life,  but  also  his  great  importance  and  dig- 
nity as  founder  of  Monachism  in  the  West,  and  as  au- 
thor of  the  universally  received  translation  of  the  Old 
and  New  Testament  into  the  Latin  language  (called 
The  Vulgate  There  is  scarcely  a collection  of 
pictures  in  which  we  do  not  find  a St.  Jerome  either 
doing  penance  in  the  desert,  or  writing  his  famous 
translation,  or  meditating  on  the  mystery  of  the  Incar- 
nation. 

Jerome  was  born  about  a.  d.  342,  at  Stridonium,  in 
Dalmatia.  His  father,  Eusebius,  was  rich ; and  as  he 
showed  the  happiest  disposition  for  learning,  he  was 
sent  to  Eome  to  finish  his  studies.  There,  through  his 
own  passions,  and  the  evil  example  of  his  companions, 
he  fell  into  temptation,  and  for  a time  abandoned  him- 
self to  worldly  pleasures.  But  the  love  of  virtue,  as 
well  as  the  love  of  learning,  was  still  strong  within  him  : 
he  took  up  the  profession  of  law,  and  became  celebrat- 
ed for  his  eloquence  in  pleading  before  the  tribunals. 
When  more  than  thirty,  he  travelled  into  Gaul,  and 
visited  the  schools  of  learning  there.  It  was  about  this 
time  that  he  was  baptized,  and  vowed  himself  to  per- 
petual celibacy.  In  373,  he  travelled  into  the  East,  to 
animate  his  piety  by  dwelling  for  a time  among  the 
scenes  hallowed  by  the  presence  of  the  Saviour ; and, 
on  his  way  thither,  he  visited  some  of  the  famous  Ori- 


8T.  JEROME. 


301 


ental  hermits  and  ascetics,  of  whom  he  has  given  us 
such  a graphic  account,  and  whose  example  inspired 
him  with  a passion  for  solitude  and  a monastic  life. 
Shortly  after  his  arrival  in  Syria,  he  retired  to  a desert 
in  Chalcis,  on  the  confines  of  Arabia,  and  there  he 
spent  four  years  in  study  and  seclusion,  supporting 
himself  by  the  labor  of  his  hands.  He  has  left  us  a 
most  vivid  picture  of  his  life  of  penance  in  the  wilder- 
ness ; of  his  triajs  and  temptations,  his  fastings,  his 
sickness  of  soul  and  body : and  we  must  dwell  for  a 
moment  on  his  own  description,  in  order  to  show  with 
what  literal  and  circumstantial  truth  the  painters  have 
rendered  it.  He  says,  in  one  of  his  epistles,  O,  how 
often  in  the  desert,  in  that  vast  solitude  which,  parched 
by  the  sultry  sun,  affords  a dwelling  to  the  monks,  did 
I fancy  myself  in  the  midst  of  the  luxuries  of  Home ! 
I sat  alone,  for  I was  full  of  bitterness.  My  mis- 
shapen limbs  were  rough  with  sackcloth,  and  my  skin 
so  squalid  that  I might  have  been  mistaken  for  an  Ethi- 
opian. Tears  and  groans  were  my  occupation  every 
day  and  all  day  long.  If  sleep  surprised  me  unawares, 
my  naked  bones,  which  scarcely  held  together,  rattled 
on  the  earth.^^  His  companions,  he  says,  were  scor- 
pions and  wild  beasts  ; his  home,  a recess  among 
rocks  and  precipices.^’  Yet,  in  the  midst  of  this  hor- 
rible self-torture  and  self-abasement,  he  describes  him- 
self as  frequently  beset  by  temptations  to  sin  and  sen- 
sual indulgence,  and  haunted  by  demons  : at  other  times, 
as  consoled  by  voices  and  visions  from  heaven.  Be- 
sides these  trials  of  the  flesh  and  the  spirit,  he  had  others 
of  the  intellect.  His  love  of  learning,  his  admiration 
of  the  great  writers  of  classical  antiquity,  — of  Plato 
and  Cicero, — made  him  impatient  of  the  rude  simpli- 
city of  the  Christian  historians.  He  describes  himself 
as  fasting  before  he  opened  Cicero  ; and,  as  a further 
penance,  he  forced  himself  to  study  Hebrew,  which  at 
first  filled  him  with  disgust,  and  this  disgust  appeared 
to  him  a capital  sin.  In  one  of  his  distempered  vis- 
ions, he  fancied  he  heard  the  last  trumpet  sounded  in 


302  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

his  ear  by  an  angel,  and  summoning  him  before  the 
judgment-seat  of  God.  Who  art  thou  ? demanded 
the  awful  voice.  A Christian,”  replied  the  trembling 
Jerome.  ’T  is  false  ! ” replied  the  voice,  “ thou  art 
no  Christian  : thou  art  a Ciceronian.  Where  the  treas- 
ure is,  there  will  the  heart  be  also.”  He  persevered, 
and  conquered  the  difficulties  of  Hebrew ; and  then, 
wearied  by  the  religious  controversies  in  the  East, 
after  ten  years’  residence  there,  he  returned  to  Kome. 

But  neither  the  opposition  he  had  met  with,  nor  his 
four  years  of  solitude  and  penance  in  the  desert,  had 
subdued  the  fiery  enthusiasm  of  temperament  which 
characterized  this  celebrated  man.  At  Rome  he  boldly 
combated  the  luxurious  self-indulgence  of  the  clergy, 
and  preached  religious  abstinence  and  mortification. 
He  was  particularly  remarkable  for  the  influence  he 
obtained  over  the  Roman  w^omen  ; we  find  them,  sub- 
dued or  excited  by  his  eloquent  exhortations,  devoting 
themselves  to  perpetual  chastity,  distributing  their  pos- 
sessions among  the  poor,  or  spending  their  days  in  at- 
tendance on  the  sick,  and  ready  to  follow  their  teacher 
to  the  Holy  Land, — to  the  desert, — even  to  death.  His 
most  celebrated  female  convert  was  Paula,  a noble  Ro- 
man matron,  a descendant  of  the  Scipios  and  the  Grac- 
chi. Marcella,  another  of  these  Roman  ladies,  was  the 
first  who,  in  the  East,  collected  together  a number  of 
pious  women  to  dwell  together  in  community : hence 
she  is,  by  some  authors,  considered  as  the  first  nun ; 
but  others  contend  that  Martha,  the  sister  of  Mary 
Magdalene,  was  the  first  who  founded  a religious  com- 
munity of  women. 

After  three  years’  sojourn  at  Rome,  St.  Jerome  re- 
turned to  Palestine,  and  took  up  his  residence  in  a 
monastery  he  had  founded  at  Bethlehem.  When,  in 
extreme  old  age,  he  became  sensible  of  the  approach 
of  death,  he  raised  with  effort  his  emaciated  limbs,  and, 
commanding  himself  to  be  carried  into  the  chapel  of 
the  monastery,  he  received  the  sacrament /or  the  last 
time  from  the  hands  of  the  priest,  and  soon  after  ex- 


ST,  JEROME. 


303 


pired.  He  died  in  420,  leaving,  besides  his  famous 
translation  of  the  Scriptures,  numerous  controversial 
writings,  epistles,  and  commentaries. 

We  read  in  the  legendary  history  of  St.  Jerome, 
that  one  evening,  as  he  sat  within  the  gates  of  his 
monastery  at  Bethlehem,  a lion  entered,  limping,  as  in 
pain ; and  all  the  brethren,  when  they  saw  the  lion,  fled 
in  terror  : but  Jerome  arose,  and  went  forward  to  meet 
him,  as  though  he  had  been  a guest.  And  the  lion 
lifted  up  his  paw,  and  St.  Jerome,  on  examining  it, 
found  that  it  was  wounded  by  a thorn,  which  he  extract- 
ed ; and  he  tended  the  lion  till  he  was  healed.  The 
grateful  beast  remained  with  his  benefactor,  and  Jerome 
conflded  to  him  the  task  of  guarding  an  ass  which  was 
employed  in  bringing  firewood  from  the  forest.  On 
one  occasion,  the  lion  having  gone  to  sleep  while  the 
ass  was  at  pasture,  some  merchants  passing  by  carried 
away  the  latter ; and  the  lion  after  searching  for  him 
in  vain,  returned  to  the  monastery  with  drooping  head, 
as  one  ashamed.  St.  Jerome,  believing  that  he  had 
devoured  his  companion,  commanded  that  the  daily 
task  of  the  ass  should  be  laid  upon  the  lion,  and  that  the 
fagots  should  be  bound  on  his  back,  to  which  he  mag- 
nanimously submitted,  until  the  ass  was  recovered; 
which  was  in  this  wise.  One  day,  the  lion,  having  fin- 
ished his  task,  ran  hither  and  thither,  still  seeking  his 
companion ; and  he  saw  a caravan  of  merchants  ap- 
proaching, and  a string  of  camels,  which,  according  to 
the  Arabian  custom,  were  led  by  an  ass ; and  when  the 
lion  recognized  his  friend,  he  drove  the  camels  into  the 
convent,  and  so  terrified  the  merchants,  that  they  con- 
fessed the  theft,  and  received  pardon  from  St.  Jerome. 

The  introduction  of  the  lion  into  pictures  of  St. 
Jerome  is  supposed  to  refer  to  this  legend  ; but  in  this 
instance,  as  in  many  others,  the  reverse  was  really  the 
case.  The  lion  was  in  very  ancient  times  adopted 
as  the  symbol  befiting  St.  Jerome,  from  his  fervid, 
fiery  nature,  and  his  life  in  the  wilderness ; and  in 


304  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

later  times,  the  legend  invented  to  explain  the  symbol 
was  gradually  expanded  into  the  story  as  given  above. 

Representations  of  St.  Jerome,  in  pictures,  prints, 
and  sculpture,  are  so  numerous  that  it  were  in  vain  to 
attempt  to  give  any  detailed  account  of  them,  even  of 
the  most  remarkable.  All,  however,  may  be  included 
under  the  following  classification,  and,  according  to  the 
descriptions  given,  may  be  easily  recognized. 

The  devotional  subjects  and  single  figures  represent 
St.  Jerome  in  one  of  his  three  great  characters.  1. 
As  Patron  Saint  and  Doctor  of  the  Church.  2.  As 
Translator  and  Commentator  of  the  Scriptures.  3. 
As  Penitent.  As  Doctor  of  the  Church,  and  teacher, 
he  enters  into  every  scheme  of  decoration,  and  finds  a 
place  in  all  sacred  buildings.  As  Saint  and  Penitent, 
he  is  chiefly  to  be  found  in  the  convents  and  churches 
of  the  Jeronymites,  who  claim  him  as  their  Patriarch. 

When  placed  before  us  as  the  patron  saint  and  father 
of  divinity,  he  is  usually  standing  full  length,  either 
habited  in  the  cardinaFs  robes,  or  with  the  cardinaFs 
hat  lying  at  his  feet.  It  may  be  necessary  to  observe, 
that  there  is  no  historical  authority  for  making  St.  Je- 
rome a cardinal.  Cardinal-priests  were  not  ordained 
till  three  centuries  later ; but  as  the  other  Fathers  were 
all  of  high  ecclesiastical  rank,  and  as  St.  Jerome  obsti- 
nately refused  all  such  distinction,  it  has  been  thought 
necessary,  for  the  sake  of  his  dignity,  to  make  him  a 
cardinal : another  reason  may  be,  that  he  performed,  in 
the  court  of  Pope  Dalmasius,  those  offices  since  dis- 
charged by  the  cardinal-deacon.  In  some  of  the  old 
Venetian  pictures,  instead  of  the  official  robes  of  a car- 
dinal, he  is  habited  in  loose,  ample  red  drapery,  part  of 
which  is  thrown  over  his  head.  When  represented 
with  his  head  uncovered,  his  forehead  is  lofty  and  bald, 
his  beard  is  very  long,  flowing  even  to  his  girdle ; his 
features  fine  and  sharp,  his  nose  aquiline.  In  his  hand 
he  holds  a book  or  a scroll,  and  frequently  the  emble- 
matical church,  of  which  he  was  the  great  suj^port  and 


ST,  JEROME, 


305 

luminary : and,  to  make  the  application  stronger  and 
clearer,  rays  of  light  are  seen  issuing  from  the  door  of 
the  church. 

1.  A signal  instance  of  the  treatment  of  Jerome  as 
patron  saint  occurs  in  a fine  picture  by  Wohlgemuth, 
the  master  of  Albert  Diirer.^  It  is  an  altar-piece  rep- 
resenting the  glorification  of  the  saint,  and  consists  of 
three  compartments.  In  the  centre,  St.  Jex’ome  stands 
on  a magnificent  throne,  and  lays  his  left  hand  on  the 
head  of  a lion,  raised  up  on  his  hind  legs : the  donors 
of  the  picture,  a man  and  a woman,  kneel  in  front ; on 
each  side  are  windows  opening  on  a landscape,  wherein 
various  incidents  of  the  life  of  St.  Jerome  are  repre- 
sented; on  the  right,  his  Penance  in  the  Wilderness 
and  his  Landing  at  Cyprus ; and  on  the  left,  the  mer- 
chants who  had  carried  off  the  ass,  bring  propitiatory 
gifts,  which  the  saint  rejects,  and  other  men  are  seen 
felling  wood  and  loading  the  lion.  On  the  inner  shut- 
ters or  wings  of  the  central  picture  are  represented,  on 
the  right,  the  three  other  doctors,  — St.  Augustine, 
with  the  flaming  heart;  St.  Ambrose,  with  the  bee- 
hive ; both  habited  as  bishops  ; and  St.  Gregory,  wear- 
ing his  tiara,  and  holding  a large  book  (his  famous 
Homilies)  in  his  hand.  On  the  left,  three  apostles  with 
their  proper  attributes,  St.  Andrew,  St.  Thomas,  and 
St.  Bartholomew ; on  the  other  side  are  represented  to 
the  right,  St.  Henry  II.  holding  a church  (the  cathedral 
of  Bamberg),  and  a sword,  his  proper  attributes  ; and 
his  wife  St.  Cunegunda.f  On  the  left  St.  Elizabeth  of 
Hungary  and  St.  Martin.  There  are  besides,  to  close 
in  the  whole,  two  outer  doors : on  the  inner  side,  to 
the  right,  St.  Joseph  and  St.  Kilian ; J on  the  left,  St. 
Catherine  and  St.  Ursula ; and  on  the  exterior  of  the 
whole  the  mass  of  St.  Gregory,  with  various  person- 

* Vienna  Gal. 

t In  the  catalogue,  St.  Cunegunda  is  styled  St.  Elizabeth^ 
Queen  of  Hungary^  and  St.  Elizabeth  of  Hungary  is  styled  St, 
Elizabeth^  Queen  of  Portugal, 

J Irish  Bishop  of  Wiirtzburg,  and  Patnm,  a.  ©.  689. 

20 


3o6  sacred  and  LEGENDARY  ART, 


ages  and  objects  connected  with  the  Passion  of  Christ. 
The  whole  is  about  six  feet  high,  dated  1511,  and  may 
bear  a comparison,  for  elaborate  and  multifarious  detail 
and  exquisite  painting,  with  the  famous  Van  Eyck 
altar-piece  in  St.  John’s  Church  at  Ghent.^ 

2.  In  his  character  of  patron,  St.  Jerome  is  a fre- 
quent subject  of  sculpture.  There  is  a Gothic  figure 
of  him  in  Henry  the  Seventh’s  Chapel,  habited  in  the 
cardinal’s  robes,  the  lion  fawning  upon  him. 

When  St.  Jerome  is  represented  in  his  second  great 
character,  as  the  translator  of  the  Scriptures,  he  is 
usually  seated  in  a cave  or  in  a cell,  busied  in  reading 
or  in  writing ; he  wears  a loose  robe  thrown  over  his 
wasted  form ; and  either  he  looks  down  intent  on  his 
book,  or  he  looks  up  as  if  awaiting  heavenly  inspira- 
tion : sometimes  an  angel  is  dictating  to  him. 

1.  In  an  old  Italian  print,  which  I have  seen,  he  is 
seated  on  the  ground  reading,  in  spectacles;'- — an  an- 
achronism frequent  in  the  old  painters.  Sometimes 
he  is  seated  under  the  shade  of  a tree ; or  within  a 
cavern,  writing  at  a rude  table  formed  of  a stump  of  a 
tree,  or  a board  laid  across  two  fragments  of  rock ; as 
in  a beautiful  picture  by  Ghirlandajo,  remarkable  for 
its  solemn  and  tranquil  feeling. f 

2.  Very  celebrated  is  an  engraving  of  this  subject 
by  Albert  Diirer.  The  scene  is  the  interior  of  a cell, 
at  Bethlehem  ; two  windows  on  the  left  pour  across  the 
picture  a stream  of  sunshine,  which  is  represented  with 
wonderful  effect.  St.  Jerome  is  seen  in  the  background, 
seated  at  a desk,  most  intently  writing  his  translation 
of  the  Scriptures ; in  front  the  lion  is  crouching,  and  a 

* “In  this  picture  we  recognize  the  master  to  whom  Albert 
Diirer  was  indebted  for  his  education  j indeed,  Wohlgemuth  here 
surpasses  his  great  scholar  in  the  expression  of  gentleness  and  sim- 
plicity, particularly  in  the  heads  of  some  of  the  female  saints.”  — 
Handbook  of  Painting:  German^Flemishy  and  Dutch  Schools^ 
p.  111. 

t Florence,  Ogni  Santi. 


ST.  JEROME. 


307 

fox  is  seen  asleep.  These  two  animals  are  here  em- 
blems ; — the  one,  of  the  courage  and  vigilance,  the 
other  of  the  wisdom  or  acuteness,  of  the  saint.  The 
execution  of  this  print  is  a miracle  of  Art,  and  it  is 
very  rare.  There  ds  an  exquisite  little  picture  by  Elz- 
heimer  copied  from  it,  and  of  the  same  size,  at  Hamp- 
ton Court.  I need  hardly  observe,  that  here  the  rosary 
and  the  pot  of  holy  water  are  anachronisms,  as  well  as 
the  cardinal’s  hat.  By  Albert  Diirer  we  have  also  St. 
Jerome  writing  in  a cavern ; and  St.  Jerome  reading 
in  his  cell : both  woodcuts. 

3.  Even  more  beautiful  is  a print  by  Lucas  v.  Ley- 
den, in  which  St.  Jerome  is  reclining  in  his  cell  and 
reading  intently;  the  lion  licks  his  foot. 

4.  In  a picture  by  Lucas  Cranach,  Albert  of  Bran- 
denburg, elector  of  Mayence  (1527),  is  represented  in 
the  character  of  St.  Jerome,  seated  in  the  wilderness, 
and  writing  at  a table  formed  of  a plank  laid  across 
two  stumps  of  trees : he  is  in  the  cardinal-robes  ; and 
in  the  foreground  a lion,  a hare,  a beaver,  a partridge, 
and  a hind,  beautifully  painted,  express  the  solitude  of 
his  life.  In  the  background  the  caravan  of  merchants 
is  seen  entering  the  gate  of  the  monastery,  conducted 
by  the  faithful  lion. 

5.  The  little  picture  by  Domenichino,  in  our  Na- 
tional Gallery,  represents  St.  Jerome  looking  up  from 
his  book,  and  listening  to  the  accents  of  the  angel. 

6.  In  a picture  by  Tiarini,*  it  is  St.  John  the  Evan- 
gelist, and  not  an  angel,  who  dictates  while  he  writes. 

7.  In  a picture  by  Titian,  St.  Jerome,  seated,  holds  a 
book,  and  gazes  up  at  a crucifix  suspended  in  the  skies ; 
the  lion  is  drinking  at  a fountain.  Out  of  twenty 
prints  of  St.  Jerome  after  Titian,  there  are  at  least 
eight  which  represent  him  at  study  or  writing. 

It  is  in  the  double  character  of  Doctor  of  the  Churchy 
and  translator  of  the  Scriptures,  that  we  find  St.  Je- 
rome so  frequently  introduced  into  pictures  of  the 


Bologna,  S.  Maria  Maggiore. 


3o8  sacred  and  LEGENDARY  ART, 

Madonna,  and  grouped  with  other  saints.  Two  of  the 
most  celebrated  pictures  in  the  world  suggest  them- 
selves here  as  examples  : — 1 . The  Madonna  della 
Pesce  of  Raphael ; where  the  Virgin,  seated  on  a 
raised  throne,  holds  the  Infant  Christ  in  her  arms ; on. 
her  right  hand,  the  archangel  Raphael  presents  the 
young  Tobias,  who  holds  the  fish,  the  emblem  of  Chris- 
tianity or  Baptism.  On  the  other  side  kneels  St.  Je- 
rome, holding  an  open  book,  his  beard  sweeping  to  his 
girdle ; the  lion  at  his  feet ; the  Infant  Christ,  while 
he  bends  forward  to  greet  Tobias,  has  one  hand  upon 
St.  Jerome^s  book : the  whole  is  a beautiful  and  ex- 
pressive allegory.*  2.  Corre^io’s  picture,  called  The 
St.  Jerome  of  Parma,^^  represents  the  Infant  Christ  on 
the  knees  of  his  mother : Mary  Magdalene  bends  to 
kiss  his  feet : St.  Jerome  stands  in  front,  presenting  his 
translation  of  the  Scriptures. 

The  penitent  St.  Jerome  seems  to  have  been  adopted 
throughout  the  Christian  Church  as  the  approved  sym- 
bol of  Christian  penitence,  self-denial,  and  self-abase- 
ment. No  devotional  subject,  if  we  except  the  Ma- 
donna and  Child  and  the  **  Magdalene,'^  is  of  such 
perpetual  recurrence.  In  the  treatment  it  has  been  in- 
finitely varied.  The  scene  is  generally  a wild,  rocky 
solitude : St.  Jerome,  half  naked,  emaciated,  with  mat- 
ted hair  and  beard,  is  seen  on  his  knees  before  a cruci- 
fix, beating  his  breast  with  a stone.  The  lion  is  almost 
always  introduced,  sometimes  asleep,  or  crouching  at 
his  feet ; sometimes  keeping  guard,  sometimes  drinking 
at  a stream.  The  most  magnificent  example  of  this 
treatment  is  by  Titian : t St.  Jerome,  kneeling  on  one 
knee,  half  supported  by  a craggy  rock,  and  holding  the 
stone,  looks  up  with  eager  devotion  to  a cross,  artlessly 
fixed  into  a cleft  in  the  rock ; two  books  lie  on  a chff 

* The  picture,  originally  at  Naples,  was  purchased  or  appropri- 
ated by  Philip  IV.  for  the  Church  of  the  Escurial,  which  belonged 
to  the  Jeronymites. 

t Milan,  Brera. 


ST,  JEROME, 


309 


behind ; at  his  feet  are  a skull  and  hour-glass ; and  the 
lion  reposes  in  front.  The  feeling  of  deep  solitude, 
and  a kind  of  sacred  horror  breathed  over  this  picture, 
are  inconceivably  fine  and  impressive.  Another  by 
Titian,  but  inferior,  is  in  the  Louvre : and  there  are  at 
least  twelve  engravings  of  St.  Jerome  doing  penance, 
after  the  same  painter : among  them  a superb  land- 
scape, in  which  are  seen  a lion  and  a lioness  prowling 
in  the  wilderness,  while  the  saint  is  doing  penance  in 
the  foreground.  By  Agostino  Caracci  there  is  a famous 
engraving  of  St.  Jerome  doing  penance  in  a cave,’^ 
called  from  its  size  the  great  St.  Jerome.  But  to  par- 
ticularize further  would  be  endless  : I know  scarcely 
any  Italian  painter  since  the  fifteenth  century  who  has 
not  treated  this  subject  at  least  once. 

The  Spanish  painters  have  rendered  it  with  a gloomy 
power,  and  revelled  in  its  mystic  significance.  In  the 
Spanish  gallery  of  the  Louvre  I counted  at  least  twenty 
St.  Jeromes  : the  old  German  painters  and  engravers 
also  delighted  in  it,  on  account  of  its  picturesque  capa- 
bilities. 

Albert  Diirer  represents  St.  Jerome  kneeling  before 
a crucifix,  which  he  has  suspended  against  the  trunk 
of  a massy  tree ; an  open  book  is  near  it ; he  holds  in 
his  right  hand  a flint-stone,  with  which  he  is  about  to 
strike  his  breast,  all  wounded  and  bleeding  from  the 
blows  already  inflicted ; the  lion  crouches  behind  him, 
and  in  the  distance  is  a stag. 

The  penitent  St.  Jerome  is  not  a good  subject  for 
sculpture ; the  undraped,  meagre  form,  and  the  abase- 
ment of  suffering,  are  disagreeable  in  this  treatment : 
yet  such  representations  are  constantly  met  with  in 
churches.  The  famous  colossal  statue  by  Torrigiano, 
now  in  the  Museum  at  Seville,  represents  St.  Jerome 
kneeling  on  a rock,  a stone  in  one  hand,  a crucifix  in 
the  other.  At  Venice,  in  the  Frari,  there  is  a statue 
of  St.  Jerome,  standing,  with  the  stone  in  his  hand  and 
the  lion  at  his  feet ; too  majestic  for  the  Penitent. 
There  are  several  other  statues  of  St.  Jerome  at  Ven- 


310  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

ice,  from  the  Liberi  and  Lombardi  schools,  all  fine  as 
statues ; but  the  penitent  saint  is  idealized  into  the  pa- 
tron-saint of  penitents. 

When  figures  of  St.  Jerome  as  penitent  are  intro- 
duced in  Madonna  pictures,  or  in  the  Passion  of  Christ, 
then  such  figures  are  devotional,  and  symbolical,  in  a 
general  sense,  of  Christian  repentance. 

There  is  an  early  picture  of  the  Crucifixion,  by 
Raphael,*  in  which  he  has  placed  St.  Jerome  at  the 
foot  of  the  cross,  beating  his  breast  with  a stone. 

The  pictures  from  the  life  of  St.  Jerome  comprise  a 
variety  of  subjects:  — 1.  “He  receives  the  cardinaFs- 
hat  from  the  Virgin  : sometimes  it  is  the  Infant  Christ, 
seated  in  the  lap  of  the  Virgin,  who  presents  it  to  him. 
2.  “ He  disputes  with  the  Jewish  doctors  on  the  truth 
of  the  Christian  religion  ” ] in  a curious  picture  by  Juan 
de  Valdes. t He  stands  on  one  side  of  a table  in  an 
attitude  of  authority : the  rabbi,  each  of  whom  has  a 
demon  looking  over  his  shoulder,  are  searching  their 
books  for  arguments  against  him.  3.  “St.  Jerome, 
while  studying  Hebrew  in  the  solitude  of  Chalcida, 
hears  in  a vision  the  sound  of  the  last  trumpet,  calling 
men  to  judgment.^'  This  is  a common  subject,  and 
styled  The  Vision  of  St.  Jerome. I have  met  with 
no  example  earlier  than  the  fifteenth  century.  In  gen- 
eral he  is  lying  on  the  ground,  and  an  angel  sounds 
the  trumpet  from  above.  In  a composition  by  Ribera 
he  holds  a pen  in  one  hand  and  a penknife  in  the  other : 
he  seems  to  have  been  arrested  in  the  very  act  of  mend- 
ing his  pen  by  the  blast  of  the  trumpet : the  figure  of 
the  saint,  wasted  even  to  skin  and  bone,  and  his  look 
of  petrified  amazement,  are  very  fine,  notwithstanding 
the  commonplace  action.  In  a picture  by  Subleyras, 
in  the  Louvre,  St.  Jerome  is  gazing  upwards,  with  an 
astonished  look  ; three  archangels  sound  their  trumpets 
from  above.  In  a picture  by  Antonio  Pereda,  at  Ma- 
drid, St.  Jerome  not  only  hears  in  his  vision  the  sound 
of  the  last  trump,  he  sees  the  dead  arise  from  their 


* Collection  of  Lord  Ward. 


t Louvre,  Sp.  Gal. 


ST.  JEROME. 


311 

graves  around  him.  Lastly,  by  way  of  climax,  I may 
mention  a picture  in  the  Louvre,  by  a modern  French 
painter,  Sigalon  : St.  Jerome  is  in  a convulsive  fit,  and 
the  three  angels,  blowing  their  trumpets  in  his  ears, 
are  like  furies  sent  to  torment  and  madden  the  sinner, 
rather  than  to  rouse  the  saint. 

While  doing  penance  in  the  desert,  St.  Jerome  was 
sometimes  haunted  by  temptations,  as  well  as  amazed 
by  terrors. 

4.  Domenichino,  in  one  of  the  frescos  in  St.  Ono- 
frio,  represents  the  particular  kind  of  temptation  by 
which  the  saint  was  in  imagination  assailed  : while  he 
is  fervently  praying  and  beating  his  breast,  a circle  of 
beautiful  nymphs,  seen  in  the  background,  weave  a 
graceful  dance.  Vasari  has  had  the  bad  taste  to  give 
us  a penitent  St.  Jerome  with  Venus  and  Cupids  in  the 
background  : one  arch  little  Cupid  takes  aim  at  him ; 
— an  offensive  instance  of  the  extent  to  which,  in  the 
sixteenth  century,  classical  ideas  had  mingled  with  and 
depraved  Christian  Art.^ 

5.  Guido.  St.  Jerome  translating  the  Scriptures 
while  an  angel  dictates  : life-size  and  very  fine  (ex- 
cept the  angel,  who  is  weak,  and  reminds  one  of  a 
water-nymph) ; t in  Ins  pale  manner. 

6.  Domenichino.  St.  Jerome  is  flagellated  by  an 
angel  for  preferring  Cicero  to  the  Hebrew  writings  ” : 
also  in  the  St.  Onofrio.  The  Cicero,  torn  from  his 
hand,  lies  at  his  feet.  Here  the  saint  is  a young  man, 
and  the  whole  scene  is  represented  as  a vision. 

7.  But  St.  Jerome  was  comforted  by  visions  of 
glory,  as  well  as  haunted  by  terrors  and  temptations. 
In  the  picture  by  Parmigiano,  in  our  National  Gallery, 
St.  Jerome  is  sleeping  in  the  background,  while  St. 
John  the  Baptist  points  upwards  to  a celestial  vision 
of  the  Virgin  and  Child,  seen  in  the  opening  heavens 
above  : the  upper  part  of  this  picture  is  beautiful,  and 


* P.  Pitti,  Florence. 


t Lichtenstein  Gal. 


312  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

full  of  dignity ; but  the  saint  is  lying  stretched  on  the 
earth  in  an  attitude  so  uneasy  and  distorted,  that  it 
would  seem  as  if  he  were  condemned  to  do  penance 
even  in  his  sleep ; and  the  St.  John  has  always  ap- 
peared to  me  mannered  and  theatrical. 

8.  The  story  of  the  lion  is  often  represented.  St. 
Jerome  is  seated  in  his  cell,  attired  in  the  monk^s  habit 
and  cowl ; the  lion  approaches,  and  lays  his  paw  upon 
his  knee ; a cardinal’s  hat  and  books  are  lying  near 
him ; and,  to  express  the  self-denial  of  the  saint,  a 
mouse  is  peeping  into  an  empty  cup.* 

In  another  example,  by  Vittore  Carpaccio,  the  lion 
enters  the  cell,  and  three  monks,  attendants  on  St.  Je- 
rome, flee  in  terror. 

9.  The  Last  Communion  of  St.  Jerome  is  the  sub- 
ject of  one  of  the  most  celebrated  pictures  in  the 
world,  — the  St.  Jerome  of  Domenichino,  which  has 
been  thought  worthy  of  being  placed  opposite  to  the 
Transfiguration  of  Eaphael,  in  the  Vatican.  The 
aged  saint  — feeble,  emaciated,  dying  — is  borne  in 
the  arms  of  his  disciples  to  the  chapel  of  his  monas- 
tery, and  placed  within  the  porch.  A young  priest 
sustains  him  ; St.  Paula,  kneeling,  kisses  one  of  his 
thin,  bony  hands  ; the  saint  fixes  his  eager  eyes  on  the 
countenance  of  the  priest,  who  is  about  to  administer 
the  sacrament,  — a noble,  dignified  figure  in  a rich 
ecclesiastical  dress  ; a deacon  holds  the  cup,  and  an 
attendant  priest  the  book  and  taper ; the  lion  droops 
his  head  with  an  expression  of  grief;  the  eyes  and 
attention  of  all  are  on  the  dying  saint,  while  four  an- 
gels, hovering  above,  look  down  upon  the  scene. 

Agostino  Caracci,  in  a grand  picture  now  in  the  Bo- 
logna Gallery,  had  previously  treated  the  same  subject 
with  much  feeling  and  dramatic  power  : but  here  the 
saint  is  not  so  wasted  and  so  feeble  ; St.  Paula  is  not 
present,  and  the  lion  is  tenderly  licking  his  feet. 

* Kugler  pronounces  this  to  be  a Flemish  picture  (v.  “ Hand- 
book ” p.  190). 


ST,  JEROME, 


313 


Older  than  either,  and  very  beautiful  and  solemn,  is 
a picture  by  Vittore  Carpaccio,  in  which  the  saint  is 
kneeling  in  the  porch  of  a church,  surrounded  by  his 
disciples,  and  the  lion  is  seen  outside. 

10.  <<The  Death  of  St.  Jerome.^^  In  the  picture 
by  Stamina  he  is  giving  his  last  instructions  to  his  dis- 
ciples, and  the  expression  of  solemn  grief  in  the  old 
heads  around  is  very  fine.  In  a Spanish  picture  he  is 
extended  on  a couch,  made  of  hurdles,  and  expires  in 
the  arms  of  his  monks. 

In  a very  fine  anonymous  print,  dated  1614,  St.  Je- 
rome is  dying  alone  in  his  cell  (this  version  of  the 
subject  is  contrary  to  all  authority  and  precedent):  he 
presses  to  his  bosom  the  Gospel  and  the  crucifix ; the 
lion  looks  up  in  his  face  roaring,  and  angels  bear  away 
his  soul  to  heaven. 

11.  <<  The  Obsequies  of  St.  Jerome.”  In  the  pic- 
ture by  Vittore  Carpaccio,  the  saint  is  extended  on  the 
ground  before  the  high  altar,  and  the  priests  around 
are  kneeling  in  various  attitudes  of  grief  or  devotion. 
The  lion  is  seen  on  one  side.^ 

I will  mention  here  some  other  pictures  in  which  St. 
Jerome  figures  as  the  principal  personage. 

St.  Jerome  introducing  Charles  V.  into  Paradise  is 
the  subject  of  a large  fresco,  by  Luca  Giordano,  on  the 
staircase  of  the  Escurial. 

St.  Jerome  conversing  with  two  nuns,  probably  in- 
tended for  St.  Paula  and  St.  Marcella.f 

The  sleep  of  St.  Jerome.  He  is  watched  by  two 
angels,  one  of  whom,  with  his  finger  on  his  lip,  com- 
mands silence.  J 

It  is  worth  remarking,  that  in  the  old  Venetian  pic- 

* The  three  frescos  by  Carpaccio  are  in  the  Church  of  San  Gior- 
gio de’  Schiavoni  at  Venice. 

t It  was  in  the  Standish  Gal.  in  the  Louvre. 

J Engraved  by  Loli. 


314  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

tures  St.  Jerome  does  not  wear  the  proper  habit  and 
hat  of  a cardinal,  but  an  ample  scarlet  robe,  part  of 
which  is  thrown  over  his  head  as  a hood. 

The  history  of  St.  Jerome,  in  a series,  is  often  found 
in  the  churches  and  convents  of  the  Jeronymites,  and 
generally  consists  of  the  following  subjects,  of  which 
the  fourth  and  sixth  are  often  omitted  : — 

1.  He  is  baptized.  2.  He  receives  the  cardinaPs  hat 
from  the  Virgin.  3.  He  does  penance  in  the  desert, 
beating  his  breast  with  a stone.  4.  He  meets  St. 
Augustine.  5.  He  is  studying  or  writing  in  a cell. 
6.  He  builds  the  convent  at  Bethlehem.  7.  He  heals 
the  wounded  lion.  8.  He  receives  the  Last  Sacrament. 
9.  He  dies  in  the  presence  of  his  disciples.  10.  He  is 
buried. 

Considering  that  St.  Jerome  has  ever  been  venerated 
as  one  of  the  great  lights  of  the  Church,  it  is  singular 
that  so  few  churches  are  dedicated  to  him.  There  is 
one  at  Borne,  erected,  according  to  tradition,  on  the 
very  spot  where  stood  the  house  of  Santa  Paula,  where 
she  entertained  St.  Jerome  during  his  sojourn  at  Borne 
in  382.  Por  the  high  altar  of  this  church,  Domeni- 
chino  painted  his  masterpiece  of  the  Communion  of 
St.  Jerome  already  described.  The  embarkation  of 
Saint  Paula,  to  follow  her  spiritual  teacher  St.  Jerome 
to  the  Holy  Land,  is  the  subject  of  one  of  Claude’s 
most  beautiful  sea  pieces,  now  in  the  collection  of  the 
Duke  of  Wellington  ; another  picture  of  this  subject, 
the  figures  as  large  as  life,  is  in  the  Brera,  by  a clever 
Cremonese  painter,  Guiseppe  Bottoni. 

St.  Jerome  has  detained  us  long ; the  other  Fathers 
are,  as  subjects  of  Art,  much  less  interesting. 


ST.  AMBROSE. 


315 


St.  Ambrose. 

Lat.  S.  Ambrosius.  Ital.  Sant’  Ambrogio.  Fr.  St.  Ambrose. 

Ger.  Der  Heilige  Ambrosius.  Patron  saint  of  Milan.  April  4, 

A.  D.  397. 

We  can  hardly  imagine  a greater  contrast  than  be- 
tween the  stern,  enthusiastic,  dreaming,  ascetic  Jerome, 
and  the  statesmanlike,  practical,  somewhat  despotic 
Ambrose.  This  extraordinary  man,  in  whose  person 
the  priestly  character  assumed  an  importance  and  dig- 
nity till  then  unknown,  was  the  son  of  a prefect  of 
Gaul,  bearing  the  same  name,  and  was  born  at  Treves 
in  the  year  340.  It  is  said,  that,  when  an  infant  in  the 
cradle,  a swarm  of  bees  alighted  on  his  mouth,  without 
injuring  him.  The  same  story  was  told  of  Plato  and 
of  Archilochus,  and  considered  prophetic  of  future  elo- 
quence. It  is  from  this  circumstance  that  St.  Ambrose 
is  represented  with  the  beehive  near  him. 

Young  Ambrose,  after  pursuing  his  studies  at  Rome 
with  success,  was  appointed  prefect  of  Emilia  and  Li- 
guria (Piedmont  and  Genoa),  and  took  up  his  residence 
at  Milan.  Shortly  afterwards  the  Bishop  of  Milan 
died,  and  the  succession  was  hotly  disputed  between  the 
Catholics  and  the  Arians.  Ambrose  appeared  in  his 
character  of  prefect,  to  allay  the  tumult ; he  harangued 
the  people  with  such  persuasive  eloquence  that  they 
were  hushed  into  respectful  silence ; and  in  the  midst  a 
child’s  voice  was  heard  to  exclaim,  Ambrose  shall  be 
bishop  ! ” The  multitude  took  up  the  cry  as  though 
it  had  been  a voice  from  heaven,  and  compelled  him  to 
assume  the  sacred  office.  He  attempted  to  avoid  the 
honor  thus  laid  upon  him  by  flight,  by  entreaties,  — 
pleading  that,  though  a professed  Christian,  he  had 
never  been  baptized.  In  vain ! The  command  of  the 
emperor  enforced  the  wishes  of  the  people ; and  Am- 
brose, being  baptized,  was,  within  eight  days  afterwards, 
consecrated  bishop  of  Milan.  He  has  since  been  re- 
garded as  the  patron  saint  of  that  city. 


31 6 SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

He  began  by  distributing  all  his  worldly  goods  to 
the  poor ; he  then  set  himself  to  study  tlie  sacred  writ- 
ings, and  to  render  himself  in  all  respects  worthy  of 
his  high  dignity.  <<The  Old  and  the  New  Testament/' 
says  Mr.  Milman,  met  in  the  person  of  Ambrose : 
the  implacable  hostility  to  idolatry,  the  abhorrence  of 
every  deviation  from  the  established  formulary  of  be- 
lief ; — the  wise  and  courageous  benevolence,  the  gen- 
erous and  unselfish  devotion  to  the  great  interests  of 
humanity." 

He  was  memorable  for  the  grandeur  and  magnifi- 
cence with  which  he  invested  the  ceremonies  of  worship ; 
they  had  never  been  so  imposing.  He  particularly  cul- 
tivated music,  and  introduced  from  the  East  the  man- 
ner of  chanting  the  service  since  called  the  Ambrosian 
chant. 

Two  things  were  especially  remarkable  in  the  life 
and  character  of  St.  Ambrose.  The  first  was  the  en- 
thusiasm with  which  he  advocated  celibacy  in  both 
sexes : on  this  topic,  as  we  are  assured,  he  was  so  per- 
suasive, that  mothers  shut  up  their  daughters  lest  they 
should  be  seduced  by  their  eloquent  bishop  into  vows 
of  chastity.  The  other  was  his  determination  to  set 
the  ecclesiastical  above  the  sovereign  or  civil  power: 
this  principle,  so  abused  in  later  times,  was  in  the  days 
of  Ambrose  the  assertion  of  the  might  of  Christianity, 
of  mercy,  of  justice,  of  freedom,  over  heathenism,  tyr- 
anny, cruelty,  slavery.  The  dignity  with  which  he 
refused  to  hold  any  communication  with  the  Emperor 
Maximus,  because  he  was  stained  with  the  blood  of 
Gratian,  and  his  resolute  opposition  to  the  Empress 
Justina,  who  interfered  with  his  sacerdotal  privileges, 
were  two  instances  of  this  spirit.  But  the  most  cele- 
brated incident  of  his  life  is  his  conduct  with  regard  to 
the  Emperor  Theodosius,  the  last  great  emperor  of 
Rome ; — a man  of  an  iron  will,  a despot,  and  a war- 
rior. That  he  should  bend  in  trembling  submission  at 
the  feet  of  an  unarmed  priest,  and  shrink  before  his  re- 


ST.  AMBROSE. 


317 

bake,  filled  the  whole  world  with  an  awful  idea  of  the 
supremacy  of  the  Church,  and  prepared  the  way  for 
the  Hildebrands,  the  Perettis,  the  Caraffas  of  later 
times.  With  regard  to  St,  Ambrose,  this  assumption 
of  moral  power,  this  high  prerogative  of  the  priest- 
hood, had  hitherto  been  without  precedent,  and  in  this 
its  first  application  it  certainly  commands  our  respect, 
our  admiration,  and  our  sympathy. 

Theodosius,  with  all  his  great  qualities,  was  subject 
to  fits  of  violent  passion.  A sedition,  or  rather  a pop- 
ular affray,  had  taken  place  in  Thessalonica ; one  of 
his  officers  was  ill-treated,  and  some  lives  lost.  Theo- 
dosius, in  the  first  moment  of  indignation,  ordered  an 
indiscriminate  massacre  of  the  inhabitants,  and  seven 
thousand  human  beings  — men,  women,  and  children 
— were  sacrificed.  The  conduct  of  Ambrose  on  this 
occasion  was  worthy  of  a Christian  prelate : he  retired 
from  the  presence  of  the  Emperor,  and  wrote  to  him  a 
letter,  in  which,  in  the  name  of  Christ,  of  his  Church, 
and  of  all  the  bishops  over  whom  he  had  any  influence, 
he  denounced  this  inhuman  act  with  the  strongest  ex- 
pressions of  abhorrence,  and  refused  to  allow  the  sov- 
ereign, thus  stained  with  innocent  blood,  to  participate 
in  the  sacraments  of  the  Church ; — in  fact,  excommu- 
nicated him.  In  vain  the  emperor  threatened,  suppli- 
cated ; in  vain  he  appeared  with  all  his  imperial  state 
before  tlie  doors  of  the  cathedral  of  Milan,  and  com- 
manded and  entreated  entrance.  The  doors  were 
closed ; and  even  on  Christmas-day,  when  he  again  as 
a supplicant  presented  himself,  Ambrose  appeared  at 
the  porch,  and  absolutely  forbade  his  entrance,  unless 
he  should  choose  to  pass  into  the  sanctuary  over  the 
dead  body  of  the  intrepid  bishop.  At  length,  after 
eight  months  of  interdict,  Ambrose  consented  to  relent, 
on  two  conditions : the  first,  that  the  emperor  should 
publish  an  edict  by  which  no  capital  punishment  could 
be  executed  till  thirty  days  after  conviction  of  a crime ; 
the  second,  that  he  should  perform  a public  penance. 
The  emperor  submitted;  and,  clothed  in  sackcloth. 


3i8  sacred  and  LEGENDARY  ART, 

grovelling  on  the  earth,  with  dust  and  ashes  on  his 
head,  lay  the  master  of  the  world  before  the  altar  of 
Christ,  because  of  innocent  blood  hastily  and  wrong- 
fully shed.  This  was  a great  triumph,  and  one  of  in- 
calculable results,  — some  evil,  some  good. 

Another  incident  in  the  life  of  St.  Ambrose  should 
be  recorded  to  his  honor.  In  his  time,  the  first  blood 
was  judicially  shed  for  religious  opinion,^’ — and  the 
first  man  who  suffered  for  heresy  was  Priscilian,  a noble 
Spaniard  : on  this  occasion,  St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Mar- 
tin of  Tours  raised  their  protest  in  the  name  of  Chris- 
tianity against  this  dreadful  precedent ; but  the  animos- 
ity of  the  Spanish  bishops  prevailed,  and  Priscilian  was 
put  to  death ; so  early  were  bigotry  and  cruelty  the 
characteristics  of  the  Spanish  hierarchy  ! Ambrose  re- 
fused to  communicate  with  the  few  bishops  who  had 
countenanced  this  transaction  : the  general  voice  of  the 
Church  was  against  it. 

The  man  who  had  thus  raised  himself  above  all 
worldly  power  was  endued  by  popular  enthusiasm  with 
supernatural  privileges : he  performed  cures ; he  saw 
visions.  At  the  time  of  the  consecration  of  the  new 
cathedral  at  Milan,  a miraculous  dream  revealed  to  him 
the  martyrdom  of  two  holy  men,  Gervasius  and  Pro- 
tasius,  and  the  place  where  their  bodies  reposed.  The 
remains  were  disinterred,  conveyed  in  solemn  proces- 
sion to  the  cathedral,  and  deposited  beneath  the  high 
altar ; and  St.  Gervasius  and  St.  Protasius  became,  on 
the  faith  of  a dream,  distinguislied  saints  in  the  Roman 
calendar.  Ambrose  died  at  Milan  in  397,  in  the  atti- 
tude and  the  act  of  prayer. 

There  were  many  poetical  legends  and  apologues  re- 
lating to  St.  Ambrose  current  in  the  middle  ages. 

It  is  related  that  an  obstinate  heretic  who  went  to 
hear  him  preach,  only  to  confute  and  mock  him,  beheld 
an  angel  visible  at  his  side,  and  prompting  the  words 
he  uttered ; on  seeing  which,  the  scoffer  was  of  course 
converted ; a subject  represented  in  his  church  at  Milan. 


ST.  A3IBR0SE. 


319 


One  clay,  Ambrose  went  to  the  prefect  Macedonius, 
to  entreat  favor  for  a poor  condemned  wretch ; but  the 
doors  were  shut  against  him,  and  he  was  refused  access. 
Then  he  said,  “ Thou,  even  thou,  shalt  fly  to  the 
church  for  refuge,  and  shalt  not" enter!  and  a short 
time  afterwards,  Macedonius,  being  pursued  by  his  ene- 
mies, fled  for  sanctuary  to  the  church ; but  though  the 
doors  were  wide  open,  he  could  not  find  the  entrance, 
but  wandered  around  in  blind  perplexity  till  he  was 
slain.  Of  this  incident  I have  seen  no  picture. 

On  another  occasion,  St.  Ambrose,  coming  to  the 
house  of  a nobleman  of  Tuscany,  was  hospitably  re- 
ceived ; and  he  inquired  concerning  the  state  of  his 
host;  the  nobleman  replied:  “I  have  never  known  ad- 
versity ; every  day  hath  seen  me  increasing  in  fortune, 
in  honors,  in  possessions.  I have  a numerous  family 
of  sons  and  daughters,  who  have  never  cost  me  a pang 
of  sorrow ; I have  a multitude  of  slaves,  to  whom  my 
word  is  law ; and  I have  never  suffered  either  sickness 
or  pain.^^  Then  Ambrose  rose  hastily  from  table,  and 
said  to  his  companions,  Arise ! fly  from  this  roof,  ere 
it  fall  upon  us  ; for  the  Lord  is  not  here  ! ” and  scarce- 
ly had  he  left  the  house  when  an  earthquake  shook  the 
ground,  and  swallowed  up  the  palace  with  all  its  inhab- 
itants. I have  seen  this  story  in  a miniature,  but  can- 
not at  this  moment  refer  to  it. 

St.  Ambrose  falls  asleep,  or  into  a trance,  while  cel- 
ebrating mass,  and  sees  in  the  spirit  the  obsequies  of 
St.  Martin  of  Tours : the  sacristan  strikes  him  on  the 
shoulder  to  wake  him.  This  is  the  subject  of  a very 
old  mosaic  in  his  church  at  Milan. 

When  St.  Ambrose  was  on  his  death-bed,  Christ  vis- 
ited him  and  comforted  him ; Honorat,  bishop  of  Ver- 
celli,  was  then  in  attendance  on  him,  and  having  gone 
to  sleep,  an  angel  waked  him,  saying,  Arise,  for  he 
departs  in  this  hour  ; and  Honorat  was  just  in  time 
to  administer  the  sacrament  and  see  him  expire.  Oth- 
ers who  were  present  beheld  him  ascend  to  heaven, 
borne  in  the  arms  of  angels. 


320  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

Devotional  pictures  of  St.  Ambrose  alone  as  patron 
saint  do  not  often  occur.  In  general  he  wears  the 
episcopal  pallium  with  the  mitre  and  crosier  as  bishop : 
the  beehive  is  sometimes  placed  at  his  feet ; but  a more 
frequent  attribute  is  the  knotted  scourge  with  three 
thongs.  The  scourge  is  a received  emblem  of  the  cas- 
tigation of  sin:  in  the  hand  of  St.  Ambrose  it  may 
signify  the  penance  inflicted  on  the  Emperor  Theodo- 
sius ; or,  as  others  interpret  it,  the  expulsion  of  the 
Arians  from  Italy,  and  the  triumph  of  the  Trinitarians. 
It  has  always  this  meaning,  we  may  presume,  when  the 
scourge  has  three  knots,  or  three  thongs.  I have  seen 
figures  of  St.  Ambrose  holding  two  human  bones  in 
his  hand.  When  this  attribute  occurs  (as  in  a picture 
by  Vivariniy  Venice  Acad.),  it  alludes  to  the  discovery 
of  the  relics  of  Gervasius  and  Protasius. 

Among  the  few  representations  of  St.  Ambrose  as 
patron  saint,  the  finest  beyond  all  comparison  is  that 
which  adorns  his  chapel  in  the  Erari  at  Venice,  painted 
conjointly  by  B.  Vivarini  and  Basaiti  (a.  d.  1498). 
He  is  seated  on  a throne,  raised  on  several  steps,  at- 
tired in  his  episcopal  robes  and  mitre,  and  bearing  the 
triple  scourge  in  his  hand.  He  has  a short  gray  beard, 
and  looks  straight  out  of  the  picture  with  an  expres- 
sion of  stern  power  ; — nothing  here  of  the  benignity 
and  humility  of  the  Christian  teacher!  Around  his 
throne  stands  a glorious  company  of  saints  : on  the 
right,  St.  George  in  complete  armor ; St.  John  the 
Baptist ; a young  saint,  bearing  a sword  and  palm, 
with  long  hair,  and  the  most  beautiful  expression  of 
mild,  serene  faith,  whom  I suppose  to  be  St.  Theo- 
dore ; St.  Sebastian ; and  another  figure  behind,  part 
of  the  head  only  seen.  On  the  left,  St.  Maurice, 
armed  ; the  three  Doctors,  St.  Gregory,  St.  Augustine, 
St.  Jerome,  and  two  other  saints  partly  seen  behind, 
whose  personality  is  doubtful.  All  these  wait  round 
St.  Ambrose,  as  guards  and  counsellors  round  a sov- 
ereign ; two  lovely  little  angels  sit  on  the  lower  step 
of  the  throne  hymning  his  praise.  The  whole  picture 


ST.  AMBROSE. 


321 


is  wonderful  for  color,  depth,  and  expression,  and 
shows  to  what  a pitch  of  excellence  the  Vivarini  family 
had  attained  in  tliese  characteristics  of  the  Venetian 
school,  long  before  it  had  become  a school. 

Most  of  the  single  figures  of  St.  Ambrose  represent 
him  in  his  most  popular  character,  that  of  the  stern 
adversary  of  the  Arians.  I remember  (in  the  Frari 
at  Venice)  a picture  in  which  St.  Ambrose  in  his  epis- 
copal robes  is  mounted  on  a white  charger,  and  flour- 
ishing on  high  liis  triple  scourge.  The  Aifians  are 
trampled  under  his  feet,  or  fly  before  him.  I have 
seen  an  old  print,  in  which  he  is  represented  with  a 
short  gray  beard,  stern  countenance,  and  wearing  the 
bishop^s  mitre : underneath  is  the  inscription  <<  Anti- 
quis  ejus  imaginibus  Mediolani  olim  depictis  ad  vivum 
expressa” ; but  it  seems  certain  that  no  authentic  por- 
trait of  him  exists. 

His  church  at  Milan,  the  Basilica  of  Sant’  Ambro- 
gio  Maggiore,  one  of  the  oldest  and  most  interesting 
churches  in  Christendom,  was  founded  by  him  in  387, 
and  dedicated  to  all  the  Saints.  Though  rebuilt  in  the 
ninth  century  and  restored  in  the  seventeenth,  it  still 
retains  the  form  of  the  primitive  Christian  churches 
(like  some  of  those  at  Rome  and  Ravenna),  and  the 
doors  of  cypress  wood  are  traditionally  regarded  as  the 
very  doors  which  St.  Ambrose  closed  against  the  Em- 
peror Theodosius,  brought  hither  from  the  ancient  ca- 
thedral. Within  this  venerable  and  solemn  old  church 
may  be  seen  one  of  the  most  extraordinary  and  best- 
preserved  specimens  of  Mediteval  Art : it  is  the  golden 
shrine  or  covering  of  the  high  altar,  much  older  than 
the  famous  pala  d’  oro  at  Venice ; and  the  work,  or  at 
least  the  design,  of  one  man  : ^ whereas  the  pala  is  the 
work  of  several  different  artists  at  different  periods. 
On  the  front  of  the  altar,  which  is  all  of  plates  of 

* Wolvinus,  A.  D.  832.  “ His  name  seems  to  indicate  that  he 
was  of  Teutonic  race,  a circumstance  which  has  excited  much 
controversy  amongst  the  modern  Italian  antiquaries.”  — Mur- 
ray's Handbook. 

21 


322  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

gold,  enamelled  and  set  with  precious  stones,  are  rep- 
resented in  relief  scenes  from  the  life  of  our  Saviour ; 
on  the  sides,  which  are  of  silver-gilt,  angels,  archangels, 
and  medallions  of  Milanese  saints.  On  the  back,  also 
of  silver-gilt,  we  have  the  whole  life  of  St.  Ambrose, 
in  a series  of  small  compartments,  most  curious  and 
important  as  a record  of  costume  and  manners,  as  well 
as  an  example  of  the  state  of  Art  at  that  time.  I have 
never  seen  any  engraving  of  this  monument,  but  I ex- 
amined it  carefully.  In  the  centre  stand  the  Archan- 
gels Michael  and  Gabriel,  in  the  Byzantine  style ; and 
below  them,  St.  Ambrose  blesses  the  donor.  Bishop 
Angelbertus,  and  the  goldsmith  Wolvinus.  Around, 
in  twelve  compartments,  we  have  the  principal  inci- 
dents of  the  life  of  St.  Ambrose,  the  figures  being, 
as  nearly  as  I can  recollect,  about  six  inches  high. 

1.  Bees  swarm  round  his  head  as  he  lies  in  his 
cradle.  2.  He  is  appointed  prefect  of  the  Ligurian 
provinces.  3.  He  is  elected  Bishop  of  Milan  in  375. 
4.  He  is  baptized.  5.  He  is  ordained.  6.  and  7.  He 
sleeps,  and  beholds  in  a vision  the  obsequies  of  St. 
Martin  of  Tours.  8.  He  preaches  in  the  cathedral, 
inspired  by  angels.  9.  He  heals  the  sick  and  lame. 
10.  He  is  visited  by  Christ.  11.  An  angel  wakes  the 
Bishop  of  Vercelli  and  sends  him  to  St.  Ambrose. 
12.  Ambrose  dies,  and  angels  bear  away  his  soul  to 
heaven. 

I was  surprised  not  to  find  in  his  church  what  we 
consider  as  the  principal  event  of  his  life,  — his  mag- 
nanimous resistance  to  the  Emperor  Theodosius.  In 
fact,  the  grand  scene  between  Ambrose  and  Theodo- 
sius has  never  been  so  popular  as  it  deserves  to  be  : 
considered  merely  as  a subject  of  painting,  it  is  full  of 
splendid  picturesque  capabilities  ; for  grouping,  color, 
contrast,  background,  all  that  could  he  desired.  In 
the  great  picture  by  Rubens,*  the  scene  is  the  porch 
of  the  church.  On  the  left  the  emperor,  surrounded 
by  his  guards,  stands  irresolute,  and  in  a supplicatory 


* Belvedere  Gal.,  Vienna. 


ST.  AiMBROSE. 


323 

attitude,  on  the  steps  ; on  the  right,  and  above,  St. 
Ambrose  is  seen,  attended  by  the  ministering  priests, 
and  stretches  out  his  hand  to  repel  the  intruder.  There 
is  a print,  after  Andrea  del  Sarto,  representing  Theo- 
dosius on  his  knees  before  the  relenting  prelate.  In 
the  Louvre  is  a small  picture,  by  Subleyras,  of  the 
reconciliation  of  Ambrose  and  Theodosius.  In  our 
National  Gallery  is  a small  and  beautiful  copy,  by 
Yandyck,  of  the  great  picture  by  Eubens. 

As  joint  patrons  of  Milan,  St.  Ambrose  and  St. 
Carlo  Borromeo  are  sometimes  represented  together, 
but  only  in  late  pictures. 

There  is  a statue  of  St.  Ambrose,  by  Falconet,^  in 
the  act  of  repelling  Theodosius,  which  is  mentioned  by 
Diderot,  with  a commentary  so  characteristic  of  the 
French  anti-religious  feeling  of  that  time,  — a feeling 
as  narrow  and  one-sided  in  its  way  as  the  most  bigoted 
Puritanism,  — that  I am  tempted  to  extract  it ; only 
premising,  that  if,  after  the  slaughter  at  Ismael,  Cath- 
erine of  Russia  had  been  placed  under  the  ban  of 
Christendom,  the  world  would  not  have  been  the 
worse  for  such  an  exertion  of  the  priestly  power. 

“ C’est  ce  fougueux  eveque  qui  osa  fermer  les  portes  de  I’eglise 
i Theodose,  et  a qui  un  certaiu  souverain  de  par  le  monde  (Fred- 
eric of  Prussia)  qui  dans  la  guerre  passee  avoit  une  si  bonue  envie 
de  faire  un  tour  dans  la  rue  des  pretres,  et  une  certaine  souveraine 
(Catherine  of  Russia)  qui  vient  de  debarrasser  son  clerge  de  toute 
cette  richesse  inutile  qui  I’empechoit  d’etre  respectable,  auroient 
fait  couper  la  barbe  et  les  oreilles,  eu  lui  disant : ‘ Apprenez,  mon- 
sieur I’abbe,  que  le  temple  de  votre  Dieu  est  sur  mon  domaine,  et 
que  si  mon  predecesseur  vous  a accorde  par  grace  les  trois  arpens 
de  terrain  qu’il  occupe,  je  puis  les  reprendre  et  vous  envoyer  por- 
ter VOS  autels  et  votre  fanatisme  ailleurs.  Ce  lieu-ci  la  maison  du 
Pere  commun  des  hommes,  bons  ou  mechans,  et  je  veux  entrer 
quand  il  me  plaira.  Je  ne  m’accuse  point  i vous  j quand  je 
daignerois  vous  consul  ter,  vous  n’en  savez  pas  assez  pour  me 
conseiller  sur  ma  conduite,  et  de  quel  front  vous  immiscez-vous 
d’en  juger?’  Mais  le  plat  empereur  ne  parla  pas  ainsi,  et 
I’eveque  savoit  bien  k qui  il  avoit  faire.  Le  statuaire  nous  I’a 
montre  dans  le  moment  de  son  insolent  apostrophe.” 


* Paris,  Invalides. 


324  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

In  Didcrot^s  criticisms  on  Art^  which  are  often 
quoted  even  now,  there  is  in  general  a far  better 
taste  than  prevailed  in  liis  time,  and  much  good 
sense ; but  a low  tone  of  sentiment  when  he  had  to 
deal  with  imaginative  or  religious  Art,  and  an  intol- 
erable coarseness,  — most  mischievous  foul  sin  in 
chiding  sin/' 


St.  Augustine. 

St.  Austin.  Lat,  Sanctus  Augustinus.  Ital.  Sant’  Agostino.  Er, 
S.  Augustin.  Aug.  28,  a.  d.  430. 

St.  Augustine,  the  third  of  the  Doctors  of  the 
Church,  was  born  at  Tagaste,  in  Numidia,  in  354. 
His  father  was  a heathen ; his  mother,  Monica,  a 
Christian.  Endowed  with  splendid  talents,  a vivid 
imagination,  and  strong  passions,  Augustine  passed 
his  restless  youth  in  dissipated  pleasures,  in  desultory 
studies,  changing  from  one  faith  to  another,  dissatisfied 
with  himself  and  unsettled  in  mind.  His  mother, 
Monica,  wept  and  prayed  for  him,  and,  in  the  ex- 
tremity of  her  anguish,  repaired  to  the  Bishop  of 
Carthage.  After  listening  to  her  sorrows,  he  dismissed 
her  with  these  words  : <<  Go  in  peace ; the  son  of  so 
many  tears  will  not  perish  ! " Augustine  soon  after- 
wards went  to  Home,  where  he  gained  fame  and  riches 
by  his  eloquence  at  the  bar ; but  he  was  still  unhappy 
and  restless,  nowhere  finding  peace  either  in  labor  or 
in  pleasure.  Erom  Borne  he  went  to  Milan ; there, 
after  listening  for  some  time  to  the  preaching  of  Am- 
brose, he  was,  after  many  struggles,  converted  to  the 
faith,  and  was  baptized  by  the  Bishop  of  Milan,  in 
presence  of  his  mother,  Monica.  On  this  occasion 
was  composed  the  hymn  called  the  Te  Deum,"  still 
in  use  in  our  Church ; St.  Ambrose  and  St.  Augustine 
reciting  the  verses  alternately  as  they  advanced  to  the 
altar.  Augustine,  after  some  time  spent  in  study,  was 
ordained  priest,  and  then  Bishop  of  Hippo,  a small 


ST,  AUGUSTINE, 


325 

town  and  territorjr  not  far  from  Carthage.  Once  in- 
stalled in  his  bishopric,  he  ever  afterwards  refused  to 
leave  the  flock  intrusted  to  his  care,  or  to  accept  of 
any  higher  dignity.  His  life  was  passed  in  the  prac- 
tice of  every  virtue  : all  that  he  possessed  was  spent  in 
hospitality  and  charity,  and  his  time  was  devoted  to 
the  instruction  of  his  flock,  either  by  preaching  or 
writing.  In  430,  after  he  had  presided  over  his  dio- 
cese for  thirty-five  years,  the  city  of  Hippo  was  be- 
sieged by  the  Vandals ; in  the  midst  of  the  horrors 
that  ensued,  Augustine  refused  to  leave  his  people, 
and  died  during  the  siege,  being  then  in  his  seventy- 
sixth  year.  It  is  said  that  his  remains  were  afterwards 
removed  from  Africa  to  Pavia,  by  Luitprand,  King  of 
the  Lombards.  His  writings  in  defence  of  Christianity 
are  numerous  and  celebrated ; and  he  is  regarded  as 
the  patron  saint  of  theologians  and  learned  men. 

Of  his  glorious  tomb,  in  the  Cathedral  of  Pavia,  I 
can  only  say  that  its  beauty  as  a work  of  art  astonished 
me.  I had  not  been  prepared  for  anything  so  rich,  so 
elegant  in  taste,  and  so  elaborate  in  invention.  It  is 
of  the  finest  florid  Gothic,  worked  in  white  marble, 
scarcely  discolored  by  time.  Augustine  lies  upon  a 
bier,  and  angels  of  exquisite  grace  are  folding  his 
shroud  around  him.  The  basso-relievos  represent  the 
events  of  his  life;  the  statues  of  the  evangelists,  apos- 
tles, and  other  saints  connected  with  the  history  of  the 
Church,  are  full  of  dignity  and  character.  It  comprises 
in  all  290  figures.  This  magnificent  shrine  is  attributed 
by  Cicognara  to  the  Jacobelli  of  Venice,  and  by  Vasari 
to  the  two  brothers  Agostino  and  Agnolo  of  Siena; 
but  he  does  not  speak  with  certainty,  and  the  date,  1362, 
seems  to  justify  the  supposition  of  Cicognara,  the  Sie- 
nese brothers  being  then  eighty  or  ninety  years  old. 

Single  figures  of  St.  Augustine  are  not  common; 
and  when  grouped  with  others  in  devotional  pictures, 
it  is  not  easy  to  distinguish  him  from  other  bishops ; 
for  his  proper  attribute,  the  heart  flaming  or  trans- 
pierced, to  express  the  ardor  of  his  piety  or  the  poig- 


326  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

nancy  of  his  repentance,  is  very  seldom  introduced: 
but  when  a bishop  is  standing  with  a book  in  his  hand, 
or  a pen,  accompanied  by  St.  Jerome,  and  with  no  par- 
ticular attribute,  we  may  suppose  it  to  be  St.  Augus- 
tine ; and  when  the  title  of  one  of  his  famous  writings 
is  inscribed  on  the  book,  it  of  course  fixes  the  identity 
beyond  a doubt. 

1.  B.  Vivarini.  St.  Augustine  seated  on  a throne, 
as  patron  saint,  mitred  and  robed ; alone,  stern,  and 
majestic.^ 

2.  Dosso  Dossi.  St.  Augustine  throned  as  patron, 
attended  by  two  angels ; he  looks  like  a jovial  patri- 
arch.! 

3.  B.  Eilippo  Lippi.  St.  Augustine  writing  in  his 
chamber  ; no  emblem,  no  mitre ; yet  the  personalite  so 
marked  that  one  could  not  mistake  him  either  for  Am- 
brose or  Jerome,  f 

4.  Andrea  del  Sarto.  St.  Augustine  as  doctor ; be- 
fore him  stand  St.  Dominic  and  St.  Peter  Martyr ; 
beside  him  St.  Laurence,  listening ; in  front  kneel  St. 
Sebastian  and  Mary  Magdalen.  § 

5.  V.  Carpaccio.  St.  Augustine  standing ; a fine, 
stern,  majestic  figure ; he  holds  his  book  and  scourge.  || 

6.  Paris  Bordone.  The  Virgin  and  Child  enthroned; 
the  Virgin  phices  on  the  head  of  St.  Augustine,  who 
kneels  before  her,  the  jewelled  mitre.*!! 

7.  Florigerio.  St.  Augustine,  as  bishop,  and  St. 
Monica,  veiled,  stand  on  each  side  of  the  Madonna.^* 

As  a series  of  subjects,  the  history  of  St.  Augustine 
is  not  commonly  met  with  ; yet  certain  events  in  his 
life  are  of  very  frequent  occurrence. 

I shall  begin  with  the  earliest. 

1 . Monica  brings  her  son  to  school ; the  master  re- 

* SS.  Giovan  e Paolo,  Venice.  f Brera,  Milan. 

+ FI.  Gal. 

§ Pitti  Pal.  This  fine  picture  was  painted  for  the  Agostini. 

II  Brera,  Milan. 

IT  Berlin  Gal.  **  Acad.  Venice. 


ST.  AUGUSTINE. 


327 

ceives  him ; the  scholars  are  sitting  in  a row  conning 
their  hornbooks.  The  names  of  Monica  and  Augus- 
tine are  inscribed  in  the  glories  round  their  heads. 
This  is  a very  curious  little  oval  picture  of  the  early 
part  of  the  fourteenth  century.* 

Benozzo  Gozzoli  has  painted  the  same  subject  in  a 
large  fresco  in  the  church  of  San  Geminiano  at  Vol- 
terra  (a.  d.  1460).  Monica  presents  her  son  to  the 
schoolmaster,  who  caresses  him ; in  the  background  a 
little  boy  is  being  whipped,  precisely  in  the  same  atti- 
tude in  which  correction  is  administered,  to  this  day,  in 
some  of  our  schools. 

2.  St.  Augustine  under  the  fig-tree  meditating,  with 

the  inscription,  Dolores  anim®  salutem  parturientes  ” ; 
and  the  same  subject  varied,  with  the  inscription,  Tolhy 
lege.  He  tells  us  in  his  Confessions,  that  while  still 
unconverted,  and  in  deep  communion  with  his  friend 
Alypius  on  the  subject  of  the  Scriptures,  the  contest 
within  his  mind  was  such  that  he  rushed  from  the 
presence  of  his  friend  and  threw  himself  down  beneath 
a fig-tree,  pouring  forth  torrents  of  repentant  tears ; 
and  he  heard  a voice,  as  it  were  the  voice  of  a child, 
repeating  several  times,  “ Tolle^  Take  and 

read  ” ; and  returning  to  the  place  where  he  had  left 
his  friend,  and  taking  up  the  sacred  volume,  he  opened 
it  at  the  verse  of  St.  Paul's  Epistle  to  the  Romans, 

Not  in  rioting  and  drunkenness,  not  in  chambering 
and  wantonness,  not  in  strife  and  envying ; but  put  ye 
on  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  and  make  not  provision  for 
the  flesh."  Considering  that  this  was  the  voice  of 
God,  he  took  up  the  religious  profession,  to  the  great 
joy  of  his  mother  and  his  friend. 

3.  C.  Procaccino.  The  Baptism  of  St.  Augustine 
in  the  presence  of  St.  Monica.  This  is  a common 
subject  in  chapels  dedicated  to  St.  Augustine  or  St. 
Monica.t 

4.  As  the  supposed  founder  of  one  of  the  four  great 
religious  communities,  St.  Augustine  is  sometimes  rep- 


* Vatican,  Christian  Museum. 


t Cremona. 


328  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

resented  as  giving  the  rules  to  his  Order : or  in  the 
act  of  writing  them,  while  his  monks  stand  around,  as 
in  a picture  by  Carletto  Cagliari : * both  arc  common 
subjects  in  the  houses  of  the  Augustine  friars.  The 
habit  is  black.f 

5.  St.  Augustine  dispensing  alms,  generally  in  a 
black  habit,  and  with  a bishop’s  mitre  on  his  head. 

6.  St.  Augustine,  washing  the  feet  of  the  pilgrims, 
sees  Christ  descend  from  above  to  have  his  feet  washed 
with  the  rest ; a large  picture  in  the  Bologna  Academy 
by  Desubleo,  a painter  whose  works,  with  this  one  ex- 
ception, are  unknown  to  me.  The  saint  wears  the 
black  habit  of  an  Augustine  friar,  and  is  attended  by  a 
monk  with  a napkin  in  his  hand.  I found  the  same 
subject  in  the  Louvre,  in  a Spanish  picture  of  the  sev- 
enteenth century ; above  is  seen  a church  (like  the  Pan- 
theon) in  a glory,  and  Christ  is  supposed  to  utter  the 
words,  Tibi  commendo  Ecclesiam  meam.”  f 

7.  St.  Augustine,  borne  aloft  by  angels  in  an  ecstatic 
vision,  beholds  Christ  in  the  opening  heavens  above, 
St.  Monica  kneeling  below.  This  fine  picture,  by  Yan- 
dyck,  is  or  was  in  the  gallery  of  Lord  Methuen  at 
Corsham  : and  at  Madrid  there  is  another  example,  by 
Murillo  : St.  Augustine  kneeling  in  an  ecstasy  sees  a 
celestial  vision ; on  one  hand  the  Saviour  crucified,  on 
the  other  the  Virgin  and  angels. 

This,  however,  is  not  the  famous  subject  called,  in 
general,  8.  “ The  Vision  of  St.  Augustine,”  which  rep- 
resents a dream  or  vision  related  by  himself.  He  tells 
us  that,  while  busied  in  writing  his  Discourse  on  the 
Trinity,  he  wandered  along  the  sea-shore  lost  in  medi- 
tation. Suddenly  he  beheld  a child,  who,  having  dug 
a hole  in  the  sand,  appeared  to  be  bringing  water  from 

* Belvedere,  Vienna. 

t V.  “ Legends  of  the  Monastic  Orders.” 

J I believe  this  picture  was  afterwards  in  the  possession  of  Mr. 
Dennistoun,  of  Dennistoun.  Mr.  Stirling  mentions  it  as  a fine 
specimen  of  Murillo’s  second  style. 


ST.  AUGUSTINE. 


329 

the  sea  to  fill  it.  Augustine  inquired  what  was  the 
object  of  his  task?  He  replied,  that  he  intended  to 
empty  into  this  cavity  all  the  waters  of  the  great  deep. 
**  Impossible  ! ” exclaimed  Augustine.  “ Not  more  im- 
possible,” replied  the  child,  than  for  thee,  O Augus- 
tine ! to  explain  the  mystery  on  which  thou  art  now 
meditating.” 

No  subject  from  the  history  of  St.  Augustine  has 
been  so  often  treated,  yet  I do  not  remember  any  very 
early  example.  It  was  adopted  as  a favorite  theme 
when  Art  became  rather  theological  than  religious,  and 
more  intent  on  illustrating  the  dogmas  of  churchmen 
than  the  teaching  of  Christ.  During  the  sixteenth  and 
seventeenth  centuries  we  find  it  everywhere,  and  treated 
in  every  variety  of  style ; but  the  motif  does  not  vary, 
and  the  same  fault  prevails  too  generally,  of  giving  us 
a material  fact,  rather  than  a spiritual  vision  or  revela- 
tion. Augustine,  arrayed  in  his  black  habit  or  his 
episcopal  robes,  stands  on  the  sea-shore,  gazing  with  an 
astonished  air  on  the  Infant  Christ,  who  pauses,  and 
looks  up  from  his  task,  holding  a bowl,  a cup,  a ladle, 
or  a shell  in  his  hand.  Thus  we  have  it  in  Murillo^s 
picture,  — the  most  beautiful  example  I have  seen  : the 
child  is  heavenly,  but  not  visionary,  “ palpable  to  feel- 
ing as  to  sense.” 

In  Garofalo’s  picture  of  this  subject,  now  in  our  Na- 
tional Gallery,  Augustine  is  seated  on  a rock  by  the 
margin  of  the  sea,  habited  in  his  episcopal  robes,  and 
with  his  books  and  writing  implements  near  him ; and 
while  he  gazes  on  the  mysterious  child,  the  Virgin  ap- 
pears amid  a choir  of  angels  above  : behind  Augustine 
stands  St.  Catherine,  the  patron  saint  of  theologians 
and  scholars : the  little  red  figure  in  the  background 
represents  St.  Stephen,  whose  life  and  actions  are  elo- 
quently set  forth  in  the  homilies  of  St.  Augustine  : the 
introduction  of  St.  Catherine,  St.  Stephen,  and  the 
whole  court  of  heaven,  gives  the  picture  a visionary 
character.  Rubens  has  painted  this  subject  with  all  his 
powerful  reality  : here  Augustine  wears  the  black  habit 


330  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

of  his  Order.  Yandyck  in  his  large  grand  picture  has 
introduced  St.  Monica  kneeling,  thus  giving  at  once  the 
devotional  or  visionary  character.*  Albert  Diirer  has 
designed  and  engraved  the  same  subject.  The  most 
singular  treatment  is  the  classical  composition  of  Ra- 
phael, in  one  of  the  small  chiaro-scuro  pictures  placed 
significantly  under  the  “ Dispute  of  the  Sacrament.^' 
St.  Augustine  is  in  a Roman  dress,  bare-headed,  and 
on  horseback ; his  horse  starts  and  rears  at  the  sight 
of  the  miraculous  child. 

There  is  something  at  once  picturesque  and  mystical 
in  this  subject,  which  has  rendered  it  a favorite  with 
artists  and  theologians  ; yet  there  is  always,  at  least  in 
every  instance  I can  recollect,  something  prosaic  and 
literal  in  the  treatment  which  spoils  the  poetry  of  the 
conception. 

9.  “ St.  Augustine  and  St.  Stephen  bury  Count 
Orgaz,’^  — the  masterpiece  of  Domenico  el  Greco,  once 
in  the  Cathedral  of  Toledo,  now  in  the  Madrid  Gal- 
lery. This  Conde  de  Orgaz,  as  Mr.  Rord  tells  us  in 
his  Handbook,  lived  in  1312,  and  had  repaired  a church 
in  his  lifetime,  and  therefore  St.  Stephen  and  St.  Augus- 
tine came  down  from  heaven  to  lay  him  in  his  tomb, 
in  presence  of  Christ,  the  Virgin,  and  all  the  court  of 
heaven.  “ The  black  and  gold  armor  of  the  dead 
Count  is  equal  to  Titian ; the  red  brocades  and  copes 
of  the  saints  are  admirable ; less  good  are  the  Virgin 
and  celestial  groups.^’  I have  before  mentioned  the 
reason  why  St.  Augustine  and  St.  Stephen  are  often 
represented  in  companionship.  • 

St.  Monica  is  often  introduced  into  pictures  of  her 
son,  where  she  has,  of  course,  the  secondary  place ; 
her  dress  is  usually  a black  robe,  and  a veil  or  coif, 
white  or  gray,  resembling  that  of  a nun  or  a widow. 
I have  met  with  but  one  picture  where  she  is  supreme  ; 
it  is  in  the  Carmine  at  Florence.  St.  Monica  is  seated 
on  a throne  and  attended  by  twelve  holy  women  or 
female  saints,  six  on  each  side.  The  very  dark  situa- 


Once  in  Lord  Methuen’s  Gallery  at  Corsham. 


ST.  GREGORY. 


331 


tion  of  this  picture  prevented  me  from  distinguishing 
individually  the  saints  around  her,  but  Monica  herself 
as  well  as  the  other  figures  have  that  grandiose  air 
which  belongs  to  the  painter,  — Filippo  Lippi. 

I saw  in  the  atelier  of  the  painter  Ary  Scheffer,  in 
1845,  an  admirable  picture  of  St.  Augustine  and  his 
mother  Monica.  The  two  figures,  not  quite  full-length, 
are  seated ; she  holds  his  hand  in  both  hers,  looking  up 
to  heaven  with  an  expression  of  enthusiastic,  undoubt- 
ing faith ; — the  son  of  so  many  tears  cannot  be  cast 
away ! ” He  also  is  looking  up  with  an  ardent,  eager, 
but  anxious,  doubtful  expression,  which  seems  to  say. 
Help  thou  my  unbelief ! ” For  profound  and  truth- 
ful feeling  and  significance,  I know  few  things  in  the 
compass  of  modern  Art  that  can  be  compared  to  this 
picture.* 


St.  Gregory. 

Lat.  Sanctus  Gregorius  Magnus.  Ital.  San  Gregorio  Magno  or 
Papa.  Fr.  St.  Gregoire.  Ger.  Der  Heilige  Gregor.  March 
12,  A.  D.  604. 

The  fourth  Doctor  of  the  Latin  Church,  St.  Greg- 
ory, styled,  and  not  witliout  reason,  Gregory  the  Great, 
was  one  of  those  extraordinary  men  whose  influence  is 
not  only  felt  in  their  own  time,  but  through  long  suc- 
ceeding ages.  The  events  of  his  troubled  and  splendid 
pontificate  belong  to  history  ; and  I shall  merely  throw 
together  here  such  particulars  of  his  life  and  character 
as  may  serve  to  render  the  multiplied  representations 
of  him  both  intelligible  and  interesting.  He  was  born 
at  Rome  in  the  year  540.  His  father,  Gordian,  was 
of  senatorial  rank : his  mother,  Sylvia,  who,  in  the 
history  of  St.  Gregory,  is  almost  as  important  as  St. 
Monica  in  the  story  of  St.  Augustine,  was  a woman  of 
rare  endowments,  and,  during  his  childish  years,  the 

* It  was  iu  the  possession  of  Her  Majesty  the  Ex-Queen  of  the 
French,  who  paid  for  it  25,000f. 


332  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

watchful  instructress  of  her  son.  It  is  recorded  that 
when  he  was  still  an  infant  she  was  favored  by  a vision 
of  St.  Antony,  in  which  he  promised  to  her  son  the 
supreme  dignity  of  the  tiara.  Gregory,  however,  com- 
menced his  career  in  life  as  a lawyer,  and  exercised 
during  twelve  years  the  office  of  prsetor  or  chief  magis- 
trate of  his  native  city  ; yet,  while  apparently  engrossed 
by  secular  affairs,  he  became  deeply  imbued  with  the 
religious  enthusiasm  which  was  characteristic  of  his 
time  and  hereditary  in  his  family.  Immediately  on 
the  death  of  his  father  he  devoted  all  the  wealth  he 
had  inherited  to  pious  and  charitable  purposes,  con- 
verted his  paternal  home  on  the  Celian  Hill  into  a 
monastery  and  hospital  for  the  poor,  which  he  dedicated 
to  St.  Andrew  : then,  retiring  to  a little  cell  within  it, 
he  took  the  habit  of  the  Benedictine  Order,  and  gave 
up  all  his  time  to  study  and  preparation  for  the  duties 
to  which  he  had  devoted  himself.  On  the  occasion  of 
a terrific  plague  which  almost  depopulated  Borne,  he 
fearlessly  undertook  the  care  of  the  poor  and  sick, 
pope  Pelagius  having  died  at  this  time,  the  people  with 
one  voice  called  upon  Gregory  to  succeed  him  : but  he 
shrank  from  the  high  office,  and  wrote  to  the  Emperor 
^laurice,  entreating  him  not  to  ratify  the  choice  of  the 
people.  The  emperor  sent  an  edict  confirming  his 
election,  and  thereupon  Gregory  fled  from  Rome,  and 
hid  himself  in  a cave.  Those  who  went  in  search  of 
him  were  directed  to  the  place  of  his  concealment  by  a, 
celestial  light,  and  the  fugitive  was  discovered  and 
brought  back  to  Rome. 

No  sooner  had  he  assumed  the  tiara,  thus  forced 
upon  him  against  his  will,  than  he  showed  himself  in 
all  respects  worthy  of  his  elevation.  While  he  asserted 
the  dignity  of  his  station,  he  was  distinguished  by  his 
personal  humility  : he  was  the  first  pope  who  took  the 
title  of  Servant  of  the  Servants  of  God  ” ; he  abol- 
ished slavery  throughout  Christendom  on  religious 
grounds ; though  enthusiastic  in  making  converts,  he 
set  himself  against  persecution ; and  when  the  Jews  of 


ST.  GREGORY. 


333 


Sardinia  appealed  to  him,  he  commanded  that  the  syn- 
agogues which  had  been  taken  from  them,  and  con- 
verted into  churches,  should  be  restored.  He  was  the 
first  who  sent  missionaries  to  preach  the  Gospel  in 
England,  roused  to  pity  by  the  sight  of  some  British 
captives  exposed  for  sale  in  the  market  at  Rome. 
Shocked  at  the  idea  of  an  eternity  of  vengeance  and 
torment,  if  he  did  not  originate  the  belief  in  purgatory, 
he  was  at  least  the  first  who  preached  it  publicly,  and 
made  it  an  article  of  faith.  In  his  hatred  of  war,  of 
persecution,  of  slavery,  he  stepped  not  only  in  advance 
of  his  own  time,  but  of  ours.  He  instituted  the  celi- 
bacy of  the  clergy,  one  of  the  boldest  strokes  of  eccle- 
siastical power ; he  reformed  the  services  of  the  Church ; 
defined  the  model  of  the  Roman  liturgy,  such  as  it  has 
ever  since  remained,  — the  offices  of  the  priests,  the 
variety  and  change  of  the  sacerdotal  garments ; he  ar- 
ranged the  music  of  the  chants,  and  he  himself  trained 
the  choristers.  Experience,^'  says  Gibbon, had 
shown  him  the  efficacy  of  these  solemn  and  pompous 
rites  to  soothe  the  distress,  to  confirm  the  faith,  to  mit- 
igate the  fierceness,  and  to  dispel  the  dark  enthusiasm 
of  the  vulgar ; and  he  readily  forgave  their  tendency  to 
promote  the  reign  of  priesthood  and  superstition."  If, 
at  a period  when  credulity  and  ignorance  were  univer- 
sal, he  showed  himself  in  some  instances  credulous  and 
ignorant,  it  seems  hardly  a reproach  to  one  in  other 
respects  so  good  and  so  great. 

His  charity  was  boundless,  and  his  vigilance  inde- 
fatigable : he  considered  himself  responsible  for  every 
sheep  of  the  flock  intrusted  to  him ; and  when  a beg- 
gar died  of  hunger  in  the  streets  of  Rome,  he  laid 
himself  under  a sentence  of  penance  and  excommuni- 
cation, and  interdicted  himself  for  several  days  from 
the  exercise  of  his  sacerdotal  functions. 

Such  was  St.  Gregory  the  Great,  the  last  Pope  who 
was  canonized  : celestial  honors  and  worldly  titles  have 
often  been  worse  — seldom  so  well  — bestowed. 

During  the  last  two  years  of  his  life,  his  health, 


334  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

early  impaired  by  fasts  and  vigils,  failed  entirely,  and 
he  was  unable  to  rise  from  his  couch.  He  died  in  604, 
in  the  fourteenth  year  of  his  pontificate.  They  still 
preserve,  in  the  church  of  the  Lateran  at  Rome,  his 
bed,  and  the  little  scourge  with  which  he  was  wont  to 
keep  the  choristers  in  order. 

The  monastery  of  St.  Andrew,  which  he  founded  on 
the  Celian  Hill,  is  now  the  church  of  San  Gregorio. 
To  stand  on  the  summit  of  the  majestic  flight  of  steps 
which  leads  to  the  portal,  and  look  across  to  the  ruined 
palace  of  the  Cassars,  makes  the  mind  giddy  with 
the  rush  of  thoughts.  There,  before  us,  the  Palatine 
Hill,  — Pagan  Rome  in  dust : here,  the  little  cell,  a 
few  feet  square,  where  slept  in  sackcloth  the  man  who 
gave  the  last  blow  to  the  power  of  the  Caesars,  and 
first  set  his  foot  as  sovereign  on  the  cradle  and  capital 
of  their  greatness. 

St.  Gregory  was  in  person  tall  and  corpulent,  and 
of  a d^rk  complexion,  with  black  hair,  and  very  little 
beard.  He  speaks  in  one  of  his  epistles  of  his  large 
size,  contrasted  with  his  weakness  and  painful  infirmi- 
ties. He  presented  to  the  monastery  of  St.  Andrew 
his  own  portrait,  and  tliose  of  his  father,  and  his 
mother  St.  Sylvia : they  were  still  in  existence  three 
hundred  years  after  his  death,  and  the  portrait  of 
Gregory  probably  furnished  that  particular  type  of 
physiognomy  which  we  trace  in  all  the  best  represen- 
tations of  him,  in  which  he  appears  of  a tall,  large, 
and  dignified  person,  with  a broad,  full  face,  black  hair 
and  eyebrows,  and  little  or  no  beard. 

As  he  was,  next  to  St.  Jerome,  the  most  popular  of 
the  Pour  Doctors,  single  figures  of  him  abound.  They 
are  variously  treated  : in  general,  he  bears  the  tiara  as 
Pope,  and  the  crosier  with  the  double  cross,  in  common 
with  other  Papal  saints  ; but  his  peculiar  attribute  is 
the  dove,  which  in  the  old  pictures  is  always  close  to 
his  ear.  He  is  often  seated  on  a throne,  in  the  pon- 
tifical robes,  wearing  the  tiara  : one  hand  raised  in 
benediction ; in  the  other  a book,  which  represents 


ST.  GREGORY. 


335 


his  homilies,  and  other  famous  works  attributed  to 
him  : the  dove  either  rests  on  his  shoulder,  or  is 
hovering  over  his  head.  He  is  thus  represented  in 
the  fine  statue,  designed,  as  it  is  said,  by  M.  Angelo, 
and  executed  by  Cordieri,  in  the  chapel  of  St.  Barbara, 
in  San  Gregorio,  Borne  ; and  in  the  picture  over  the 
altar-piece  of  his  chapel,  to  the  right  of  the  higli  altar. 
In  the  Salviati  Chapel  on  the  left,  is  the  “ St.  Gregory 
in  prayer,^’  by  Annibal  Caracci.  He  is  seen  in  front 
bareheaded,  but  arrayed  in  the  pontifical  habit,  kneel- 
ing on  a cushion,  his  hands  outspread  and  uplifted ; 
the  dove  descends  from  on  high  ; the  tiara  is  at  his 
feet,  and  eight  angels  hover  around  : — a grand,  finely 
colored)  but,  in  sentiment,  rather  cold  and  mannered 
picture.* 

By  Guercino,  St.  Gregory  seated  on  a throne,  look- 
ing upwards,  his  hand  on  an  open  book,  in  act  to  turn 
the  leaves  ; the  dove  hovers  at  his  shoulder  : to  the 
left  stands  St.  Francis  Xavier ; on  the  right,  and  more 
in  front,  St.  Ignatius  Loyola.  Behind  St.  Gregory  is 
an  angel  playing  on  the  viol,  in  allusion  to  his  love 
and  patronage  of  sacred  music ; in  front  an  infant 
angel  holds  the  tiara.  The  type  usually  adopted  in 
figures  of  St.  Gregory  is  liere  exaggerated  into  coarse- 
ness, and  the  picture  altogether  appears  to  me  more 
remarkable  for  Guercino’s  faults  than  for  his  beauties.f 

Several  of  the  legends  connected  with  the  history  of 
St.  Gregory  are  of  singular  interest  and  beauty,  and 
have  afforded  a number  of  picturesque  themes  for  Art : 
they  appear  to  have  arisen  out  of  his  exceeding  popu- 
larity. They  are  all  expressive  of  the  veneration  in 
which  he  was  held  by  the  people ; of  the  deep  impres- 
sion left  on  their  minds  by  his  eloquence,  his  sanctity, 
his  charity ; and  of  the  authority  imputed  to  his  nu- 
merous writings,  .which  were  commonly  said  to  have 
been  dictated  by  the  Holy  Spirit. 

* There  is  a duplicate  in  the  Bridgewater  Gallery. 

t Sutherland  Gal. 


336  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

1 . John  the  deacon,  his  secretary,  who  has  left  a full 
account  of  his  life,  declares  that  he  beheld  the  Holy 
Ghost  in  the  form  of  a dove  perched  upon  his  shoulder 
while  he  was  writing  or  dictating  his  famous  homilies* 
This  vision,  or  rather  figure  of  speech,  has  been  inter- 
preted as  a fact  by  the  early  painters.  Thus,  in  a 
quaint  old  picture  in  the  Bologna  Gallery,  we  have 
St.  Gregory  seated  on  a throne  writing,  the  celestial 
dove  at  his  ear.  A little  behind  is  seen  John  the 
deacon,  drawing  aside  a curtain,  and  looking  into  the 
room  at  his  patron  with  an  expression  of  the  most 
naive  astonishment. 

2.  The  Archangel  Michael,  on  the  cessation  of  the 
pestilence,  sheathes  his  sword  on  the  summit  of  the 
Mole  of  Hadrian.  I have  never  seen  even  a tolerable 
picture  of  this  magnificent  subject.  There  is  a picture 
in  the  Vatican,  in  which  Gregory  and  a procession  of 
priests  are  singing  litanies,  and  in  the  distance  a little 
Mola  di  Adriano,  with  a little  angel  on  the  summit ; — ^ 
curious,  but  without  merit  of  any  kind. 

3.  The  Supper  of  St.  Gregory.  It  is  related  that 
when  Gregory  was  only  a monk,  in  the  Monastery  of 
St.  Andrew,  a beggar  presented  himself  at  the  gate, 
and  requested  alms  : being  relieved,  he  came  again 
and  again,  and  at  length  nothing  was  left  for  the 
charitable  saint  to  bestow,  but  the  silver  porringer  in 
which  his  mother,  Sylvia,  had  sent  him  a potage ; and 
he  commanded  that  this  should  be  given  to  the  mendi- 
cant. It  was  his  custom,  when  he  became  Pope,  to 
entertain  every  evening  at  his  own  table  twelve  poor 
men,  in  remembrance  of  the  number  of  our  Lord^s 
apostles.  One  night,  as  he  sat  at  supper  with  his 
guests,  he  saw,  to  his  surprise,  not  twelve,  but  thir- 
teen seated  at  his  table.  And  he  called  to  his  steward, 
and  said  to  him,  Did  I not  command  thee  to  invite 
twelve  ? and  behold,  there  are  thirteen  ! ” And  the 
steward  told  them  over,  and  replied,  Holy  Father, 
there  are  surely  twelve  only ! and  Gregory  held  his 
peace ; and  after  the  meal,  he  called  forth  the  unbidden 


ST.  GREGORY. 


337 


guest,  and  asked  him,  Who  art  thou  ? And  he  re- 
plied, I am  the  poor  man  whom  thou  didst  formerly 
relieve ; but  my  name  is  the  Wonderful,  and  through 
me  thou  shalt  obtain  whatever  thou  shalt  ask  of  God/' 
Then  Gregory  knew  that  he  had  entertained  an  angel 
(or,  according  to  another  version  of  the  story,  our 
Lord  himself).  This  legend  has  been  a frequent 
subject  in  painting,  under  the  title  of  The  Supper 
of  St.  Gregory.''  In  the  fresco  in  his  church  at  Rome, 
it  is  a winged  angel  who  appears  at  the  supper-table. 
In  the  fresco  of  Paul  Veronese,  one  of  his  famous 
banquet-scenes,  the  stranger  seated  at  the  table  is  the 
Saviour  habited  as  a pilgrim.^  In  the  picture  painted 
by  Vasari,  his  masterpiece,  now  in  the  Bologna  Gal- 
lery, he  has  introduced  a great  number  of  figures  and 
portraits  of  distinguished  personages  of  his  own  time, 
St.  Gregory  being  represented  under  the  likeness  of 
Clement  VII.  The  unbidden  guest,  or  angel,  bears 
the  features  of  the  Saviour. 

This  is  one  of  many  beautiful  mythic  legends, 
founded  on  the  words  of  St.  Paul  in  which  he  so 
strongly  recommends  hospitality  as  one  of  the  vir- 
tues : Be  not  forgetful  to  entertain  strangers  : for 
thereby  some  have  entertained  angels  unawares."  (Heb. 
xiii.  2.)  Or,  as  Massinger  has  rendered  the  apostolic 
precept,  — 

“ Learn  all, 

By  this  example,  to  look  on  the  poor 
With  gentle  eyes,  for  in  such  habits  often 
Angels  desire  an  alms.” 

4.  The  Mass  of  St.  Gregory.  On  a certain  occasion 
when  St.  Gregory  was  officiating  at  the  mass,  one  who 
was  near  him  doubted  the  real  presence ; thereupon,  at 
the  prayer  of  the  saint,  a vision  is  suddenly  revealed 
of  the  crucified  Saviour  himself,  who  descends  upon 
the  altar  surrounded  by  the  instruments  of  his  passion. 
This  legend  has  been  a popular  subject  of  painting 
from  the  beginning  of  the  fifteenth  century,  and  is 

* Vicenza.  S.  Maria  del  Monte. 

22 


338  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

called  <<  The  Mass  of  St.  Gregory.^’  I have  met 
with  it  in  every  variety  of  treatment  and  grouping ; 
but,  however  treated,  it  is  not  a pleasing  subject.  St. 
Gregory  is  seen  officiating  at  the  altar,  surrounded  by 
his  attendant  clergy.  Sometimes  several  saints  are  in- 
troduced in  a poetical  manner,  as  witnesses  of  the  mir- 
acle : as  in  an  old  picture  I saw  in  the  gallery  of  Lord 
Northwick ; — the  crucified  Saviour  descends  from  the 
cross,  and  stands  on  the  altar,  or  is  upborne  in  the  air 
by  angels ; while  all  the  incidental  circumstances  and 
instruments  of  the  Passion,  — not  merely  the  crown 
of  thorns,  the  spear,  the  nails,  but  the  kiss  of  Judas, 
the  soldiers^  dice,  the  cock  that  crew  to  Peter,  — are 
seen  floating  in  the  air.  As  a specimen  of  the  utmost 
naivete  in  this  representation  may  be  mentioned  Albert 
Diirer’s  woodcut. 

The  least  offensive  and  most  elegant  in  treatment  is 
the  marble  bas-relief  in  front  of  the  altar  in  the  Chapel 
of  St.  Gregory  at  Pome. 

5.  The  miracle  of  the  Brandcum.  The  Empress 
Constantia  sent  to  St.  Gregory  requesting  some  of  the 
relics  of  St.  Peter  and  St.  Paul.  He  excused  himself, 
saying  that  he  dared  not  disturb  their  sacred  remains 
for  such  a purpose,  but  he  sent  her  part  of  a conse- 
crated cloth  {Brandeum)  which  had  enfolded  the  body 
of  St.  John  the  Evangelist.  The  empress  rejected  this 
gift  with  contempt  : whereupon  Gregory,  to  show  that 
such  things  are  hallowed  not  so  much  in  themselves  as 
by  the  faith  of  believers,  laid  the  Brandeum  on  the 
altar,  and  after  praying  he  took  up  a knife  and  pierced 
it,  and  blood  flowed  as  from  a living  body.  This  inci- 
dent, called  the  “ miracle  dei  Brandei”  has  also  been 
painted.  Andrea  Sacchi  has  represented  it  in  a grand 
picture  now  in  the  Vatican  ; the  mosaic  copy  is  over 
the  altar  of  St.  Gregory  in  St.  Peter’s.  Gregory  holds 
up  to  view  the  bleeding  cloth,  and  the  expression  of 
astonishment  and  conviction  in  the  countenances  of  the 
assistants  is  very  fine. 


ST.  GREGORY. 


339 


6.  St.  Gregory  releases  tlie  soul  of  the  Emperor  Tra- 
jan. In  a little  picture  in  the  Bologna  Academy,  he 
is  seen  praying  before  a tomb,  on  which  is  inscribed 
Trajano  Imperador  ; beneath  are  two  angels  raising 
the  soul  of  Trajan  out  of  the  flames.  Sueh  is  the 
usual  treatment  of  this  curious  and  poetical  legend, 
which  is  thus  related  in  the  Legenda  Aurea.  It 
happened  on  a time,  as  Trajan  was  hastening  to  battle 
at  the  head  of  his  legions,  that  a poor  widow  flung 
herself  in  his  path,  and  cried  aloud  for  justice,  and  the 
emperor  stayed  to  listen  to  her ; and  she  demanded 
vengeance  for  the  innocent  blood  of  her  son,  killed  by 
the  son  of  the  emperor.  Trajan  promised  to  do  her 
justice  when  he  returned  from  his  expedition.  ‘ But, 
Sire,’  answered  the  widow,  < should  you  be  killed  in 
battle,  who  then  will  do  me  justice  ? ’ ‘ My  successor,’ 

replied  Trajan.  And  she  said,  ^ What  will  it  signify 
to  you,  great  Emperor,  that  any  other  than  yourself 
should  do  me  justice '?  Is  it  not  better  that;  you  should 
do  this  good  action  yourself  than  leave  another  to  do 
it  ? ’ And  Trajan  alighted,  and  having  examined  into 
the  affair,  he  gave  up  his  own  son  to  her  in  place  of 
him  she  had  lost,  and  bestowed  on  her  likewise  a rich 
dowry.  Now,  it  came  to  pass  that  as  Gregory  was  one 
day  meditating  in  his  daily  walk,  this  action  of  the 
Emperor  Trajan  came  into  his  mind,  and  he  wept 
bitterly  to  think  that  a man  so  just  should  be  con- 
demned as  a heathen  to  eternal  punishment.  And  en- 
tering into  a church  he  prayed  most  fervently  that  the 
soul  of  the  good  emperor  might  be  released  from  tor- 
ment. And  a voice  said  to  him,  ‘ I have  granted  thy 
prayer,  and  I have  spared  the  soul  of  Trajan  for  thy 
sake  ; but  because  thou  hast  supplicated  for  one  whom 
the  justice  of  God  had  already  condemned,  thou  shalt 
choose  one  of  two  things  : either  thou  shalt  endure  for 
two  days  the  Arcs  of  purgatory,  or  thou  shalt  be  sick 
and  infirm  for  the  remainder  of  thy  life.’  Gregory 
chose  the  latter,  which  sufficiently  accounts  for  the 
grievous  pains  and  infirmities  to  which  this  great 


340  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

and  good  man  was  subjected,  even  to  the  day  of  his 
death 

This  story  of  Trajan  was  extremely  popular  in  the 
middle  ages  : it  is  illustrative  of  the  character  of  Greg- 
ory, and  the  feeling  which  gave  rise  to  his  doctrine  of 
purgatory.  Dante  twice  alludes  to  it ; he  describes 
it  as  one  of  the  subjects  sculptured  on  the  walls  of 
Purgatory,  and  takes  occasion  to  relate  the  whole 
story : — 

“ There  was  storied  on  the  rock 
Th’  exalted  glory  of  the  Roman  prince, 

Whose  mighty  worth  moved  Gregory  to  earn 
His  mighty  conquest,  — Trajan  the  Emperor. 

A widow  at  his  bridle  stood  attired 
In  tears  and  mourning.  Round  about  them  trooped 
Full  throng  of  knights : and  overhead  in  gold 
The  eagles  floated,  struggling  with  the  wind. 

The  wretch  appeared  amid  all  these  to  say : 

‘ Grant  vengeance,  Sire  ! for,  woe  beshrew  this  heart, 

My  son  is  murdered  1 ’ He,  replying,  seemed  : 

‘ Wait  now  till  I return.’  And  she,  as  one 
Made  hasty  by  her  grief : ‘ 0 Sire,  if  thou 
Dost  not  return  ? ’ — ‘ Where  I am,  who  then  is, 

May  right  thee.’  — ‘ What  to  thee  is  others’  good, 

If  thou  neglect  thy  own  ?’  — ‘ Now  comfort  thee,’ 

At  length  he  answers.  ‘ It  beseemeth  well 
My  duty  be  performed,  ere  I move  hence. 

So  justice  wills  } and  pity  bids  me  stay.’  ” 

Cary’s  Dante,  Purg.  x. 

It  was  through  the  efficacy  of  St.  Gregory's  inter- 
cession that  Dante  afterwards  finds  Trajan  in  Paradise, 
seated  between  King  David  and  King  Hezekiah. 
(Par.  XX.) 

As  a subject  of  painting,  the  story  of  Trajan  was 
sometimes  selected  as  an  appropriate  ornament  for  a 
hall  of  justice.  We  find  it  sculptured  on  one  of  the 
capitals  of  the  pillars  of  the  Ducal  Palace  at  Venice  : 
there  is  the  figure  of  the  widow  kneeling,  somewhat 
stiff,  but  very  simple  and  expressive,  and  over  it,  in 
rude  ancient  letters,  — Trajano  Imperador,  che  die 
justizia  a la  Vedova.”  In  the  Town  Hall  of  Ceneda, 


ST.  GREGORY. 


341 

near  Belluna,  are  the  three  Judgments  (i  tre  Gmdizi)y 
painted  by  Pompeo  Amalteo  : the  Judgment  of  Solo- 
mon, the  Judgment  of  Daniel,  and  the  Judgment  of 
Trajan.  It  is  painted  in  the  Town  Hall  of  Brescia  by 
Giulio  Campi,  one  of  a series  of  eight  righteous  judg- 
ments. 

I found  the  same  subject  in  the  church  of  St. 
Thomas  of  Canterbury  at  Verona.  The  son  of  the 
Emperor  Trajan  trampling  over  the  son  of  the  widow,"’ 
is  a most  curious  composition  by  Hans  Schaufelein.* 

7.  There  was  a monk,  who,  in  defiance  of  his  vow 
of  poverty,  secreted  in  his  cell  three  pieces  of  gold. 
Gregory,  on  learning  this,  excommunicated  him,  and 
shortly  afterwards  the  monk  died.  When  Gregory  heard 
that  the  monk  had  perished  in  his  sin,  without  receiving 
absolution,  he  was  filled  with  grief  and  horror;  and 
he  wrote  upon  a parchment  a prayer  and  a form  of 
absolution,  and  gave  it  to  one  of  his  deacons,  desiring 
him  to  go  to  the  grave  of  the  deceased  and  read  it 
there  : on  the  following  night  the  monk  appeared  in  a 
vision,  and  revealed  to  him  his  release  from  torment. 

This  story  is  represented  in  the  beautiful  bas-relief, 
in  white  marble,  in  front  of  the  altar  of  his  chapel ; it  is 
the  last  compartment  on  the  right.  The  obvious 
intention  of  this  wild  legend  is  to  give  effect  to  the  doc- 
trine of  purgatory,  and  the  efficacy  of  prayers  for  the 
dead. 

St.  Gregory’s  merciful  doctrine  of  purgatory  also 
suggested  those  pictures  so  often  found  in  chapels  dedi- 
cated to  the  service  of  the  dead,  in  which  he  is  repre- 
sented in  the  attitude  of  supplication,  while  on  one  side, 
or  in  the  background,  angels  are  raising  the  tormented 
souls  out  of  the  flames. 

In  ecclesiastical  decoration  I have  seen  the  two 
popes,  St.  Gelasius,  who  reformed  the  calendar  in  494, 
and  St.  Celestinus,  who  arranged  the  discipline  of  the 
monastic  orders,  added  to  the  series  of  beatified  Doctors 
of  the  Church. 

* Bartsch,  Le  Peintre  Graveury  vii.  264. 


342 


CACHED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


IL  — THE  FOUR  GEEEK  FATHERS. 

The  four  Greek  Fathers  are  St.  John  Chrysostom,  St. 
Basil  the  Great,  St.  Athanasius,  and  St.  Gregory 
Nazianzen.  To  these,  in  Greek  pictures,  a fifth  is 
generally  added,  St.  Cyril  of  Alexandria. 

From  the  time  of  the  schism  between  the  Eastern 
and  Western  churches,  these  venerable  personages,  who 
once  exercised  such  an  influence  over  all  Christendom, 
who  preceded  the  Latin  Fathers,  and  were  in  fact  their 
teachers,  have  been  almost  banished  from  the  religious 
representations  of  the  west  of  Europe.  When  they  are 
introduced  collectively  as  a part  of  the  decoration  of  an 
ecclesiastical  edifice,  we  may  conclude  in  general  that 
the  work  is  Byzantine  and  executed  under  the  influence 
of  Greek  artists. 

A signal  example  is  the  central  dome  of  the  bap- 
tistery of  St.  Mark’s  at  Venice,  executed  by  Greek 
artists  of  the  12th  and  13th  centuries.  In  the  four 
spandrils  of  the  vault  are  the  Greek  Fathers  seated, 
writing  (if  I well  remember),  and  in  the  purest  Byzan- 
tine style  of  art.  They  occupy  the  same  places  here 
that  we  find  usually  occupied  by  the  Latin  Doctors  in 
church  decoration  : each  has  his  name  inscribed  in 
Greek  characters.  We  have  exactly  the  same  repre- 
sentation in  the  Cathedral  of  Monreale  at  Palermo. 
The  Greek  Fathers  have  no  attributes  to  distinguish 
them,  and  the  general  custom  in  Byzantine  Art  of 
inscribing  the  names  over  each  figure  renders  this 
unnecessary : in  general,  each  holds  a book,  or,  in 
some  instances,  a scroll,  which  represents  his  writings ; 
while  the  right  hand  is  raised  in  benediction,  in  the 
Greek  manner,  the  first  and  second  finger  extended, 
and  the  thumb  and  third  finger  forming  a cross. 
According  to  the  formula  published  by  M.  Didron, 
each  of  the  Greek  Fathers  bears  on  a scroll  the  first 
words  of  some  remarkable  passage  from  his  works  : 


ST.  JOHN  CHRYSOSTOM. 


343 


thus,  St.  John  Chrysostom  has  God,  our  God,  who 
liath  given  us  for  food  the  bread  of  life,^^  &c. : St. 
Basil,  “ None  of  those  who  arc  in  the  bondage  of  fleshly 
desires  are  worthy,”  «Sbc.  : St.  Athanasius,  Often,  and. 
anew,  do  we  flee  to  thee,  O God,”  &c.  : St.  Gregory 
Naziauzen,  God,  the  holy  among  the  holies,  the 
thrice  holy,”  &c.  : and  St.  Cyril,  <<  Above  all,  a Virgin 
without  sin  or  blemish,”  &c. 

The  Greek  bishops  do  not  wear  mitres ; conse- 
quently, when  in  the  Italian  or  German  pictures  St. 
Basil  or  any  of  his  companions  wear  the  mitre,  it  is  a 
mistake  arising  from  the  ignorance  of  the  artist. 

The  Fathers  of  the  Greek  Church  have  been  repre- 
sented by  Domenichino  at  Grotta  Ferrata,  placed  over 
the  cornice,  and  under  the  evangelists,  their  proper 
place : they  are  majestic  flgures,  with  fine  heads,  and 
correctly  draped  according  to  the  Greek  ecclesiastical 
costume.  They  are  placed  here  with  peculiar  propri- 
ety, because  the  convent  originally  belonged  to  the 
Greek  order  of  St.  Basil,  and  the  founder,  St.  Nilus,  was 
a Greek.* 

As  separate  devotional  and  historical  representations 
of  these  Fathers  do  sometimes,  though  rarely,  occur,  I 
shall  say  a few  words  of  them  individually. 


St.  John  Chrysostom. 

Lot.  Sanctus  Johannes  Chrysostom.  Ital.  San  Giovanni  Crisos- 
tomo,  San  Giovanni  Bocca  d’  Oro.  Fr.  St.  Jean  Chrysostome. 
Died  Sept.  14,  a.  d.  407.  His  festival  is  celebrated  by  the 
Greeks  on  the  13th  of  November,  and  by  the  Latin  Church 
on  the  27th  of  January. 

St.  John,  called  Chrysostom,  or  of  the  Golden 
Mouth,  because  of  his  extraordinary  eloquence,  was 

* For  an  account  of  St.  Nilus,  and  the  foundation  of  Grotta 
Ferrata,  see  the  “ Legends  of  Monastic  Orders.” 


344  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

born  at  Antioch  in  344.  His  parents  were  illustrious, 
and  the  career  opened  to  him  was  of  arts  and  arms; 
but  from  his  infancy  the  bent  of  his  mind  was  peculiar. 
He  lost  his  father  when  young ; his  mother  Arthusia, 
Still  in  the  prime  of  her  life,  remained  a widow  for  his 
sake,  and  superintended  his  education  with  care  and 
intelligence.  The  remark  of  Sir  James  Mackintosh, 
that  all  distinguished  men  have  had  able  mothers,” 
appears  especially  true  of  the  great  churchmen  and 
poets.  The  mother  of  St.  John  Chrysostom  ranks 
with  the  Monicas  and  Sylvias,  already  described. 

John,  at  the  age  of  twenty,  was  already  a renowned 
pleader  at  the  bar.  At  the  age  of  twenty-six,  the  dis- 
position to  self-abnegation  and  the  passion  for  solitude, 
which  had  distinguished  him  from  boyhood,  became 
so  strong,  that  he  wished  to  retire  altogether  from  the 
world  ; his  legal  studies,  his  legal  honors,  had  become 
hateful  to  him  : he  would  turn  hermit.  For  a time  his 
mother’s  tears  and  prayers  restrained  him.  He  has 
himself  recorded  the  pathetic  remonstrance  in  which  she 
reminded  him  of  all  she  had  done  and  suffered  in  her 
state  of  widowhood  for  his  sake,  and  besought  him  not 
to  leave  her.  For  the  present  he  yielded  : but  two  years 
later  he  fled  from  society,  and  passed  five  or  six  years 
in  the  wilderness  near  Antioch,  devoting  himself  solely 
to  the  study  of  the  Scriptures,  to  penance  and  prayer ; 
feeding  on  the  wild  vegetables,  and  leading  a life  of 
such  rigorous  abstinence  that  his  health  sank  under  it, 
and  he  was  obliged  to  return  to  Antioch. 

All  this  time  he  was  not  even  an  ordained  priest ; 
but  shortly  after  he  had  emerged  from  the  desert, 
Flavian,  bishop  of  Antioch,  ordained  him,  and  ap- 
pointed him  preacher.  At  the  moment  of  his  con- 
secration, according  to  the  tradition,  a white  dove  de- 
scended on  his  head,  which  was  regarded  as  the  sign  of 
immediate  inspiration.  He  then  entered  on  his  true 
vocation  as  a Christian  orator,  the  greatest  next  to 
Paul.  On  one  occasion,  when  the  people  of  Antioch 
had  offended  the  Emperor  Theodosius,  and  were 


ST.  JOHN  CHRYSOSTOM. 


345 


threatened  with  a punishment  like  that  which  had 
fallen  on  Thessalonica,  the  eloquence  of  St.  John 
Chrysostom  saved  them  : he  was  so  adored  by  the  peo- 
ple, that  when  he  was  appointed  patriarch  of  Constan- 
tinople, it  was  necessary  to  kidnap  him,  and  carry  him 
off  from  Antioch  by  a force  of  armed  soldiers,  before 
the  citizens  had  time  to  interfere. 

From  the  moment  he  entered  on  his  high  office  at 
Constantinople,  he  became  the  model  of  a Christian 
bishop.  Humble,  self-denying,  sleeping  on  a bare 
plank,  content  with  a little  bread  and  pulse,  he  enter- 
tained with  hospitality  the  poor  and  strangers  : inde- 
fatigable as  a preacher,  he  used  his  great  gift  of  elo- 
quence to  convert  his  hearers  to  what  he  believed  to  be 
the  truth : he  united  the  enthusiasm  and  the  imagina- 
tion of  the  poet,  the  elegant  taste  of  the  scholar,  the 
logic  of  the  pleader,  with  the  inspired  earnestness  of 
one  who  had  authority  from  above.  He  was,  like  St. 
Jerome,  remarkable  for  his  influence  over  women ; 
and  his  correspondence  with  one  of  his  female  converts 
and  friends,  Olympias,  is  considered  one  of  the  finest 
of  his  works  remaining  to  us  : but,  inexorable  in  his 
denunciations  of  vice,  without  regard  to  sex  or  station, 
he  thundered  against  the  irregularities  of  the  monks, 
the  luxury  and  profligacy  of  the  Empress  Eudosia,  and 
the  servility  of  her  flatterers,  and  brought  down  upon 
himself  the  vengeance  of  that  haughty  woman,  with 
whom  the  rest  of  his  life  was  one  long  contest.  He 
was  banished : the  voice  of  the  people  obliged  the  Em- 
peror to  recall  him.  Persisting  in  the  resolute  defence 
of  his  church  privileges,  and  his  animadversions  on  the 
court  and  the  clergy,  he  was  again  banished  ; and,  on  his 
way  to  his  distant  place  of  exile,  sank  under  fatigue 
and  the  cruel  treatment  of  his  guards,  who  exposed 
him,  bareheaded  and  barefooted,  to  the  burning  sun 
of  noon  : and  thus  he  perished,  in  the  tenth  year  of  his 
bishopric,  and  the  sixty-third  of  his  age.  Gibbon  adds, 
that,  At  the  pious  solicitation  of  the  clergy  and  peo- 
ple of  Constantinople,  his  relics,  thirty  years  after  his 


346  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

death,  were  transported  from  their  obscure  sepulchre  to 
the  royal  city.  The  Emperor  Theodosius  advanced  to 
receive  them  as  far  as  Chalcedon,  and,  falling  prostrate 
on  the  coffin,  implored,  in  the  name  of  his  guilty 
parents,  Arcadius  and  Eudosia,  the  forgiveness  of  the 
injured  saiut.^' 

It  is  owing,  I suppose,  to  the  intercourse  of  Venice 
with  the  East,  that  one  of  her  beautiful  churches  is 
dedicated  to  San  Gian  Grisostomo,  as  they  call  him 
there,  in  accents  as  soft  and  sonorous  as  his  own  Greek. 
Over  the  high  altar  is  the  grandest  devotional  picture 
in  which  I have  seen  this  saint  figure  as  a chief  person- 
age. It  is  the  masterpiece  of  Sebastian  del  Piombo,^ 
and  represents  St.  John  Chrysostom  throned  and  in  the 
act  of  writing  in  a great  book ; behind  him,  St.  Paul. 
In  front,  to  the  right,  stands  St.  John  the  Baptist,  and 
behind  him  St.  George,  as  patron  of  Venice;  to  the 
left  Mary  Magdalene,  with  a beautiful  Venetian  face, 
behind  her  St.  Catherine,  patroness  of  Venice : close 
to  St.  J.  Chrysostom  stands  St.  Lucia  holding  her 
lamp ; she  is  here  the  type  of  celestial  light  or  wis- 
dom, t This  picture  was  for  a long  time  attributed  to 
Giorgione.  There  was  also  a very  fine  majestic  figure 
of  this  saint  by  Pubens,  in  the  collection  of  M.  Schamp  : 
he  is  in  the  habit  of  a Greek  bishop ; in  one  hand  he 
holds  the  sacramental  cup,  and  the  left  hand  rests  on 
the  Gospel : the  celestial  dove  hovers  near  him,  and 
two  angels  are  in  attendance. 

I cannot  quit  the  history  of  St.  John  Chrysostom 
without  alluding  to  a subject  well  known  to  collectors 
and  amateurs,  and  popularly  called  La  Penitence  de 
St.  Jean  Chrysostome.'^  It  re])resents  a woman  un- 
draped, seated  in  a cave,  or  wilderness,  with  an  infant 
in  her  arms ; or  lying  on  the  ground  with  a new-born 

* According  to  Sansovino,  begun  by  Giorgione  and  finished  by 
Sebastian. 

t Dante,  Inf.  c.  11. 


ST,  JOHN  CHRYSOSTOM. 


347 


infant  beside  her ; in  the  distance  is  seen  a man  with  a 
glory  round  his  head,  meagre,  naked,  bearded,  crawling 
on  his  hands  and  knees  in  the  most  abject  attitude ; 
beneath,  or  at  the  top,  is  inscribed  S.  Johanes  Crisos- 

TOMUS. 

For  a long  time  this  subject  perplexed  me  exceed- 
ingly, as  I was  quite  unable  to  trace  it  in  any  of  the 
biographies  of  Chrysostom,  ancient  or  modern : the 
kindness  of  a friend,  learned  in  all  the  byways  as  well 
as  the  highways  of  Italian  literature,  at  length  assisted 
me  to  an  explanation. 

The  bitter  enmity  excited  against  St.  John  Chrysos- 
tom in  his  lifetime,  and  the  furious  vituperations  of  his 
adversary,  Theophilus  of  Alexandria,  who  denounced 
him  as  one  stained  by  every  vice,  hostem  huma?iitatis, 
sacrilegorum  principem,  immundiim  dcemonem”  as  a wretch 
who  had  absolutely  delivered  up  his  soul  to  Satan, 
were  apparently  disseminated  by  the  monks.  Jerome 
translated  the  abusive  attack  of  Theophilus  into  Latin ; 
and  long  after  the  slanders  against  Chrysostom  had 
been  silenced  in  the  East,  they  survived  in  the  West. 
To  this  may  be  added  the  slaughter  of  the  Egyptian 
monks  by  the  friends  of  Chrysostom  in  the  streets  of 
Constantinople ; which,  I suppose,  was  also  retained  in 
the  traditions,  and  mixed  up  with  the  monkish  fictions. 
It  seems  to  have  been  forgotten  who  John  Chrysostom 
really  was ; his  name  only  survived  in  the  popular  bal- 
lads and  legends  as  an  epitome  of  every  horrible  crime ; 
and  to  account  for  his  being,  notwithstanding  all  this, 
a saint,  was  a difficulty  which  in  the  old  legend  is  sur- 
mounted after  a very  original,  and,  I must  needs  add, 
a very  audacious  fashion.  I have,''  writes  my  friend, 

three  editions  of  this  legend  in  Italian,  with  the  title 
La  Historia  di  San  Giovanni  Boccadoro.  It  is  in  ottava 
rima  thirty-six  stanzas  in  all,  occupying  two  leaves  of 
letter-press.  It  was  originally  composed  in  the  fifteenth 
century,  and  reprinted  again  and  again,  like  the  ballads 
and  tales  hawked  by  itinerant  ballad-mongers,  from  that 
day  to  this,  and  as  well  known  to  the  lower  orders  as 


348  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

< Jack  the  Giant-killer  ^ here.  I will  give  you  the  story 
as  succinctly  and  as  properly  as  I can.  A gentleman 
of  the  high  roads,  named  Schitano,  confesses  his  rob- 
beries and  murders  to  a certain  Fratc,  who  absolves 
him,  upon  a solemn  promise,  not  to  do  three  things,  — 

‘ Che  ta  non  facci  falso  Sacramento, 

Ne  homicidio,  ne  adulterare.’ 

Schitano  thereupon  takes  possession  of  a cave,  and 
turns  Romito  (Hermit)  in  the  wilderness.  A neighbor- 
ing king  takes  his  daughter  out  hunting  with  him  ; a 
white  deer  starts  across  their  path ; the  king  dashes 
away  in  pursuit  ten  miles  or  more,  forgetting  his  daugh- 
ter; night  comes  on;  the  princess,  left  alone  in  the 
forest,  wanders  till  she  sees  a light,  and  knocks  for  ad- 
mittance at  the  cave  of  Schitano.  He  fancies  at  first 
that  it  must  be  the  < Dcmonio,'  but  at  length  he  admits 
her  after  long  hesitation,  and  turns  her  horse  out  to 
graze.  Her  beauty  tempts  him  to  break  one  of  his 
vows ; the  fear  of  discovery  induces  him  to  violate  an- 
other by  murdering  her,  and  throwing  her  body  into  a 
cistern.  The  horse,  however,  is  seen  by  one  of  the 
cavaliers  of  the  court,  who  knocks,  and  inquires  if  he 
has  seen  a certain  * donzella ' that  way.  The  hermit 
swears  that  he  has  not  beheld  a Christian  face  for  three 
years,  thus  breaking  his  third  vow ; but,  reflecting  on 
this  threefold  sin  with  horror,  he  imposes  on  himself  a 
most  severe  penance  {‘  un  aspra  penitenza^),  to  wit : — 

‘ Di  stare  sette  anni  nell  aspro  diserto. 

Pane  non  mangero  no  bero  vino, 

Ne  mai  risguardero  il  ciel  scoperto. 

Non  parlero  Hebraico  ne  Latino, 

Per  fin  che  quel  ch’  io  dico  non  e certo,  ^ 

Che  un  fantin  di  sei  di  porga  favella, 

“ Perdonato  t’  ha  Dio  j va  alia  tua  cella.”  ’ 

“ That  is,  he  swears  that  for  seven  years  he  will  nei- 
ther eat  bread  nor  drink  wine,  nor  look  up  in  the  face  of 
heaven,  nor  speak  either  Hebrew  or  Latin,  until  it  shall 
come  to  pass  that  an  infant  of  seven  days^  old  shall 


ST.  JOHN  CHBYSOSTOM. 


349 


open  its  mouth  and  say,  ‘ Heaven  hath  pardoned  thee, 
— go  in  peace/  So,  stripping  off  his  clothes,  he  crawls 
on  hands  and  knees  like  the  beasts  of  the  field,  eating 
grass  and  drinking  water. 

“ Nor  did  his  resolution  fail  him  — he  persists  in 
this  ^ aspra  penitenza  ^ for  seven  years,  — 

‘ Sette  anni  e sette  giorni  nel  diserto  j 
Come  le  bestie  andava  lui  carpone, 

E mai  non  risguardo  il  ciel  scoperto, 

Peloso  egli  era  a modo  d’  un  montone  ; 

Spine  e fango  il  suo  letto  era  per  certo, 

Del  suo  peccato  havea  contrizione  j 
E ogni  cosa  facea  con  gran  fervore, 

Per  purgar  il  suo  fallo  e grand’  errore.’ 

In  the  mean  time  it  came  into  the  king^s  head  to  draw 
the  covers  where  the  hermit  was  leading  this  life.  The 
dogs  of  course  founds  but  neither  they  nor  the  king 
could  make  anything  of  this  new  species  of  animal, 

^ che  pareva  un  orso.’  So  they  took  him  home  in  a 
chain  and  deposited  him  in  their  zoological  collection, 
where  he  refused  meat  and  bread,  and  persisted  in 
grazing.  On  New-Year’s  day  the  queen  gives  birth  to 
a son,  who,  on  the  seventh  day  after  he  is  born,  says 
distinctly  to  the  hermit,  — 

‘ Torna  alia  tua  cella, 

Che  Dio  t’  ha  perdonato  il  tuo  peccato, 

Levati  su,  Romito  ! ora  favella  ! ’ 

But  the  hermit  does  not  speak  as  commanded ; he 
makes  signs  that  he  will  write.  The  king  orders  the 
inkstand  to  be  brought,  but  there  is  no  ink  in  it : so 
Schitano  at  once  earns  his  surname  of  Boccadoro  ( Chry- 
sostom) by  a simple  expedient : he  puts  the  pen  to  his 
mouth,  wets  it  with  his  saliva,  and  writes  in  letters  of 
gold,  — 

‘ Onde  la  penna  in  bocca  si  metteva, 

E a scrivere  comincio  senza  dimoro,  • 

Col  sputo,  lettere  che  parevau  d’  oro  ! ’ 

« After  seven  years  and  seven  days,  he  opens  his 


350  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

golden  mouth  in  speech,  and  confesses  his  foul  crimes 
to  the  king ; cavaliers  are  despatched  in  search  of  the 
body  of  the  princess  ; as  they  approach  the  cavern  they 
hear  celestial  music,  and  in  the  end  they  bring  the  don- 
zella  out  of  the  cistern  alive  and  well,  and  very  sorry 
to  leave  the  blessed  Virgin  and  the  angels,  wdth  whom 
she  had  been  passing  her  time  most  agreeably : she  is 
restored  to  her  parents  with  universal  fcsta  e allegrezza, 
and  she  announces  to  the  hermit  that  he  is  pardoned 
and  may  return  to  his  cell,  which  he  does  forthwith, 
and  ends  in  leading  the  life  of  a saint,  and  being  beati- 
fied. The  < discreti  auditori  ^ are  invited  to  take  ex- 
ample, — 

‘ Da  questo  Santo  pien  di  leggiadria 
Che  Iddio  sempre  perdona  a’  peccatori,’ 

and  are  finally  informed  that  they  may  purchase  this 
edifying  history  on  easy  terms,  to  wit,  a halfpenny,  — 

‘ Due  quattrini  dia  senza  far  piu  parole.’ 

The  price,  however,  rose ; for  in  the  next  century  the 
line  is  altered  thus  : — 

‘ Pero  ciascun  che  compararne  vuole, 

Tre  quattrini  mi  dia  senza  piu  parole.’  ” 

The  woodcuts  prefixed  to  the  ballad  represent  this 
saintly  Nebuchadnezzar  on  all  fours,  surprised  by  the 
king  with  his  huntsmen  and  dogs  ; but  no  female  figure, 
as  in  the  German  prints,  in  which  the  German  version 
of  the  legend  has  evidently  been  in  the  mind  of  the 
artists.  It  differs  in  some  respects  from  the  Italian 
ballad.  I shall  therefore  give  as  much  of  it  here  as 
will  explain  the  artistic  treatment  of  the  story. 

When  John  Chrysostom  -was  baptized,  the  Pope^ 
stood  godfather.  At  seven  years  old  he  went  to  school, 

* The  Greek  word  Papa,  here  translated  der  Papst  (the  Pope), 
betrays  the  Eastern  origin  of  the  story.  It  is  the  general  title  of 
the  Greek  priesthood,  and  means  simply  a priest,  elevated  in  the 
German  legend  into  “ the  Pope.” 


ST,  JOHN  CHRYSOSTOM. 


351 


but  he  was  so  dull  and  backward  that  he  became  tlie 
laughing-stock  of  his  schoolfellows.  Unable  to  endure 
their  mockery,  he  took  refuge  in  a neighboring  church, 
and  prayed  to  the  Virgin ; and  a voice  whispered, 
* Kiss  me  on  the  mouth,  and  thou  shalt  be  endowed 
with  all  learning.^  He  did  so,  and,  returning  to  the 
school,  he  surpassed  all  his  companions,  so  that  they 
remained  in  astonishment : as  they  looked,  they  saw  a 
golden  ring  or  streak  round  his  mouth,  and  asked  him 
how  it  came  there ; and  when  he  told  them,  they  won- 
dered yet  more.  Thence  he  obtained  the  name  of 
Chrysostom.  John  was  much  beloved  by  his  godfather 
the  Pope,  who  ordained  him  priest  at  a very  early  age ; 
but  the  first  time  he  offered  the  sacrifice  of  the  mass, 
he  was  struck  to  the  heart  by  his  un worthiness,  and 
resolved  to  seek  his  salvation  in  solitude ; therefore, 
throwing  off  his  priestly  garments,  he  fied  from  the 
city,  and  made  his  dwelling  in  a cavern  of  the  rock, 
and  lived  there  a long  while  in  prayer  and  meditation. 

<<  Now  not  far  from  the  wilderness  in  which  Chrysos- 
tom dwelt,  was  the  capital  of  a great  king  ; and  it  hap- 
pened that  one  day,  as  the  princess  his  daughter,  who 
was  young  and  very  fair,  was  walking  with  her  com- 
panions, there  came  a sudden  and  violent  gust  of  wind, 
which  lifted  her  up  and  carried  her  away,  and  set  her 
down  in  the  forest,  far  off;  and  she  wandered  about 
till  she  came  to  the  cave  of  Chrysostom,  and  knocked 
at  the  door.  He,  fearing  some  temptation  of  the  Devil, 
would  not  let  her  in  ; but  she  entreated,  and  said,  ‘ I 
am  no  demon,  but  a Christian  woman  ; and  if  thou 
leavest  me  here,  the  wild  beasts  will  devour  me.'  So 
he  yielded  perforce,  and  arose  and  let  her  in.  And  he 
drew  a line  down  the  middle  of  his  cell,  and  said, 

< That  is  your  part,  this  is  mine;  and  neither  shall 
pass  this  line/  But  this  precaution  was  in  vain,  for 
passion  and  temptation  overpowered  his  virtue ; he 
overstepped  the  line,  and  sinned.  Both  repented  sore- 
ly ; and  Chrysostom,  thinldng  that  if  the  damsel  re- 
mained longer  in  his  cave  it  would  only  occasion  further 


352  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

sin,  carried  her  to  a neighboring  precipice,  and  flung 
her  down.  When  he  had  done  this  deed,  he  was  seized 
with  horror  and  remorse  ; and  he  departed  and  went  to 
Rome  to  his  godfather  the  Pope,  and  confessed  all,  and 
entreated  absolution.  But  his  godfather  knew  him  not ; 
and,  being  seized  with  horror,  he  drove  him  forth,  and 
refused  to  absolve  him.  So  the  unhappy  sinner  fled  to 
the  wilderness,  and  made  a solemn  vow  that  he  would 
never  rise  from  the  earth  nor  look  up,  but  crawl  on  his 
hands  and  knees,  until  he  had  expiated  his  great  sin 
and  was  absolved  by  Heaven. 

When  he  had  thus  crawled  on  the  earth  for  fifteen 
years,  the  queen  brought  forth  a son ; and  when  the 
Pope  came  to  baptize  the  child,  the  infant  opened  its 
mouth  and  said,  < I will  not  be  baptized  by  thee,  but 
by  St.  John  ^ ; and  he  repeated  this  three  times  : and 
none  could  understand  this  miracle  ; but  the  Pope  was 
afraid  to  proceed.  In  the  mean  time  the  king^s  hunts- 
men had  gone  to  the  forest  to  bring  home  game  for  the 
christening  feast : there,  as  they  rode,  they  beheld  a 
strange  beast  creeping  on  the  ground  ; and  not  know- 
ing what  it  might  be,  they  threw  a mantle  over  it  and 
bound  it  in  a chain  and  brought  it  to  the  palace.  Many 
came  to  look  on  this  strange  beast,  and  with  them  came 
the  nurse  with  the  king’s  son  in  her  arms ; and  imme- 
diately the  child  opened  its  mouth  and  spake,  ‘ John, 
come  thou  and  baptize  me  ! ’ He  answered,  ^ If  it  be 
God’s  will,  speak  again ! ’ And  the  child  spoke  the 
same  words  a second  and  a third  time.  Then  John 
stood  up  ; and  the  hair  and  the  moss  fell  from  his  body, 
and  they  brought  him  garments  ; and  he  took  the  child 
and  baptized  him  with  great  devotion. 

“ When  the  king  heard  his  confession,  he  thought, 

‘ Perhaps  this  was  my  daughter,  who  was  lost  and  never 
found  ’ ; and  he  sent  messengers  into  the  forest  to  seek 
for  the  remains  of  his  daughter,  that  her  bones  at  least 
might  rest  in  consecrated  ground.  When  they  came 
to  the  foot  of  the  precipice,  there  they  found  a beautiful 
woman  seated,  naked,  and  holding  a child  in  her  arms ; 


ST.  JOHN  CHRYSOSTOM. 


353 


and  John  said  to  her,  < Why  sittest  thou  here  alone  in 
the  wilderness  ? ^ And  she  said  : ^ Dost  thou  not  know 
me  ? I am  the  woman  who  came  to  thy  cave  by  night, 
and  whom  thou  didst  hurl  down  this  rock  ! ' Then 
they  brought  her  home  with  great  joy  to  her  par- 
ents/^* 

This  extravagant  legend  becomes  interesting  for  two 
reasons  : it  shows  the  existence  of  the  popular  feeling 
and  belief  with  regard  to  Chrysostom,  long  subsequent 
to  those  events  which  aroused  the  hatred  of  the  early 
monks  ; and  it  has  been,  from  its  popular  notoriety, 
embodied  in  some  rare  and  valuable  works  of  art, 
which  all  go  under  the  name  of  the  Penance  or  Pen- 
itence of  Johannes  Chrysostom  or  Crisostomos/' 

1.  A rare  print  by  Lucas  Cranach,  composed  and 
engraved  by  himself.  In  the  centre  is  an  undraped 
woman  reclining  on  the  ground  against  a rock,  and 
contemplating  her  sleeping  infant,  which  is  lying  on 
her  lap  ; a stag,  a hind  crouching,  a plieasant  feeding 
near  her,  express  the  solitude  of  her  life ; in  the  back- 
ground is  the  savage  man  on  all  fours,  and  brows* 
ing  ; here  he  has  no  glory  round  his  head.  The  whole 
composition  is  exceedingly  picturesque. 

2.  A rare  and  beautiful  print  by  B.  Beham,  and  re* 
peated  by  Hans  Sibald  Beham,  represents  a woman 
lying  on  the  ground  with  her  back  turned  to  the  spec* 
tator ; a child  is  near  her  ; Chrysostom  is  seen  crawl- 
ing in  the  background,  with  the  glory  round  his  head. 

3.  A small  print  by  Albert  Diirer,  also  exquisitely 
engraved.  Here  the  woman  is  sitting  at  the  entrance 
of  a rocky  cave,  feeding  her  child  from  her  bosom  : in 
the  background  the  “ savage  man  ” crawling  on  all 
fours,  and  a glory  round  his  head.  This  subject  has 
been  called  St.  Genevieve  of  Brabant ; but  it  is  evi- 
dently the  same  as  in  the  two  last-named  composi- 
tions. 

* Koburgher,  Legendensammlung,  1488,  p.  325.  Heller’s  Leben 
und  Werke  Albrecht  Durer’s,  p.  440. 

23 


354  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

All  these  prints,  being  nearly  contemporaneous,  show 
that  the  legend  must  have  been  particularly  popular 
about  this  time  (1509-1520).  There  is  also  an  old 
French  version  of  the  story  which  I have  not  seen. 


St.  Basil  the  Great. 

Lat.  St.  Basilius  Magnus.  ItaL  San  Basil io  Magno.  Fr.  St.  Ba- 
sile.  June  14,  a.  d.  380. 

St.  Basil,  called  the  Great,  was  born  at  Cesarea  in 
Cappadocia,  in  the  year  328.  He  was  one  of  a family 
of  saints.  His  father  St.  Basil,  his  mother  St.  Em- 
melie,  his  two  brothers  St.  Gregory  of  Nyssa  and  St. 
Peter  of  Sebaste,  and  his  sister  St.  Macrina,  were  all 
distinguished  for  their  sanctity,  and  renowned  in  the 
Greek  calendar.  The  St.  Basil  who  takes  rank  as  the 
second  luminary  of  the  Eastern  Church,  and  whose 
dogmatical  and  theological  works  influenced  the  faith 
of  his  own  age,  and  consequently  of  ours,  was  the 
greatest  of  all.  But,  notwithstanding  his  importance 
in  the  Greek  Church,  he  figures  so  seldom  in  the  pro- 
ductions of  Western  Art,  that  I shall  content  myself 
with  relating  just  so  much  of  his  life  and  actions  as 
may  render  the  few  representations  of  him  interesting 
and  intelligible. 

He  owed  his  first  education  to  his  grandmother  St. 
Macrina  the  elder,  a woman  of  singular  capacity  and 
attainments,  to  whom  he  has  in  various  parts  of  his 
works  acknowledged  his  obligations.  For  several  years 
he  pursued  his  studies  in  profane  learning,  philosophy, 
law,  and  eloquence,  at  Constantinople,  and  afterwards 
at  Athens,  where  he  had  two  companions  and  fellow- 
students  of  very  opposite  character  : Gregory  of  Nazi- 
anzen,  afterwards  the  Saint;  and  Julian,  afterwards 
the  Apostate. 

The  success  of  the  youthful  Basil  in  all  his  studies, 
and  the  reputation  he  had  obtained  as  an  eloquent 


ST.  BASIL  THE  GREAT. 


355 


pleader,  for  a time  swelled  his  heart  with  vanity,  and 
would  have  endangered  his  salvation  but  for  the  influ- 
ence of  his  sister,  St.  Macrina,  who  in  this  emergency 
preserved  him  from  himself,  and  elevated  his  mind  to 
far  higher  aims  than  those  of  mere  worldly  science  and 
worldly  distinction.  From  that  period,  and  he  was 
then  not  more  than  twenty-eight,  Basil  turned  his 
thoughts  solely  to  the  edification  of  the  Christian 
Church  ; but  first  he  spent  some  years  in  retreat 
among  the  hermits  of  the  desert,  as  was  the  fashion 
of  that  day,  living,  as  they  did,  in  abstinence,  poverty, 
and  abstracted  study ; acknowledging  neither  country, 
family,  home,  nor  friends,  nor  fortune,  nor  worldly  in- 
terests of  any  kind,  but  with  his  thoughts  fixed  solely 
on  eternal  life  in  another  world.  In  these  austerities 
he,  as  was  also  usual,  consumed  and  ruined  his  bodily 
health ; and  remained  to  the  end  of  his  life  a feeble, 
wretched  invalid,  — a circumstance  which  was  sup- 
posed to  contribute  greatly  to  his  sanctity.  He  was 
ordained  priest  in  362,  and  Bishop  of  Cesarea  in  370 ; 
his  ordination  on  the  14th  of  June  being  kept  as  one 
of  the  great  feasts  of  the  Eastern  Church. 

On  the  episcopal  throne  he  led  the  same  life  of  ab- 
stinence and  humility  as  in  a cavern  of  the  desert ; 
and  contended  for  the  doctrine  of  the  Trinity  against 
the  Arians,  but  with  less  of  vehemence,  and  more  of 
charity,  than  the  other  Doctors  engaged  in  the  same 
controversy.  The  principal  event  of  his  life  was  his 
opposition  to  the  Emperor  Valens,  who  professed  Ari- 
anism,  and  required  that,  in  the  church  of  Cesarea, 
Basil  should  perform  the  rites  according  to  the  custom . 
of  the  Arians.  The  bishop  refused  : he  was  threat- 
ened with  exile,  confiscation,  death  : he  persisted.  The 
emperor,  fearing  a tumult,  resolved  to  appear  in  the 
church  on  the  day  of  the  Epiphany,  but  not  to  com- 
municate. He  came,  hoping  to  overawe  the  impracti- 
cable bishop,  surrounded  by  all  his  state,  his  courtiers, 
his  guards.  He  found  Basil  so  intent  on  his  sacred 
office  as  to  take  not  the  slightest  notice  of  him ; those 


356  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

of  the  clergy  around  him  continued  to  chant  the  ser- 
vice, keeping  their  eyes  fixed  in  the  profoundest  awe 
and  respect  on  the  countenance  of  their  bishop.  Valens, 
in  a situation  new  to  him,  became  agitated  : he  had 
brought  his  oblation ; he  advanced  with  it ; but  the 
ministers  at  the  altar,  not  knowing  whether  Basil 
would  accept  it,  dared  not  take  it  from  his  hands. 
Valens  stood  there  for  a moment  in  sight  of  all  the 
people,  rejected  before  the  altar,  — he  lost  his  presence 
of  mind,  trembled,  swooned,  and  would  have  fallen  to 
the  earth,  if  one  of  the  attendants  had  not  received 
him  in  his  arms.  A conference  afterwards  took  place 
between  Basil  and  the  emperor ; but  the  latter  re- 
mained unconverted,  and  some  concessions  to  the 
Catholics  was  all  that  the  bishop  obtained. 

St.  Basil  died  in  379,  worn  out  by  disease,  and 
leaving  behind  him  many  theological  writings.  His 
epistles,  above  all,  are  celebrated,  not  only  as  models 
of  orthodoxy,  but  of  style. 

Of  St.  Basil,  as  of  St.  Gregory  and  St.  John  Chry- 
sostom, we  have  the  story  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  in  visible 
form,  as  a dove  of  wonderful  whiteness,  perched  on  his 
shoulder,  and  inspiring  his  words  when  he  preached. 
St.  Basil  is  also  celebrated  as  the  founder  of  Mona- 
chism  in  the  East.  He  was  the  first  who  enjoined  the 
vows  of  poverty,  chastity,  and  obedience ; and  his  Buie 
became  the  model  of  all  other  monastic  Orders.  There 
is,  in  fact,  no  other  Order  in  the  Greek  Church,  and 
when  either  monks  or  nuns  appear  in  a Grepk  or  a 
Bussian  picture  they  must  be  Basilicans,  and  no  other : 
the  habit  is  a plain  black  tunic  with  a cowl,  the  tunic 
fastened  round  the  waist  with  a girdle  of  cord  or  leather. 
Such  is  the  dress  of  the  Greek  caloyer,  and  it  never 
varies. 

The  devotional  figures  of  St.  Basil  represent  him,  or 
ought  to  represent  him,  in  the  Greek  pontificals,  bare- 
headed, and  with  a thin,  worn  countenance,  as  he  ap- 
pears in  the  etching  of  the  Greek  Fathers. 


ST.  BASIL  THE  GREAT. 


357 


« The  Emperor  Valens  in  the  church  at  Cesarea/' 
an  admirably  picturesque  subject,  has  received  as  little 
justice  as  the  scene  between  Ambrose  and  Theodosius. 
When  the  French  painter  Subleyras  was  at  Rome  in 
1745,  he  raised  himself  to  name  and  fame  by  his  por- 
trait of  Benedict  XIV.,*  and  received,  through  the  in- 
terest of  his  friend  Cardinal  Valenti,  the  commission 
to  paint  a picture  for  one  of  the  mosaics  in  St.  Peter^s. 
The  subject  selected  was  the  Emperor  Valens  fainting 
in  presence  of  St.  Basil.  We  have  all  the  pomp  of 
the  scene  : — the  altar,  the  incense,  the  richly  attired 
priests  on  one  side ; on  the  other,  the  Imperial  court. 
It  is  not  easy  to  find  fault,  for  the  picture  is  well 
drawn,  well  composed,  in  the  mannered  taste  of  that 
time  ; well  colored,  rather  tenderly  than  forcibly  ; and 
Lanzi  is  enthusiastic  in  his  praise  of  the  draperies  ; 
yet,  as  a whole,  it  leaves  the  mind  unimpressed.  As 
usual,  the  original  sketch  for  this  picture  far  excels  the 
large  composition.f 

The  prayers  of  St.  Basil  were  supposed  by  the  Ar- 
menian Christians,  partly  from  his  sanctity,  and  partly 
from  his  intellectual  endowments,  to  have  a peculiar, 
almost  resistless,  power  ; so  that  he  not  only  redeemed 
souls  from  purgatory,  but  even  lost  angels  from  the 
abyss  of  hell.  “On  the  sixth  day  of  the  creation, 
when  the  rebellious  angels  fell  from  heaven  through 
that  opening  in  the  firmament  which  the  Armenians 
call  Arocea,  and  we  the  Galaxy,  one  unlucky  angel, 
who  had  no  participation  in  their  sin,  but  seems  to 
have  been  entangled  in  the  crowd,  fell  with  them.'' 
(A  moral,  I presume,  on  the  consequences  of  keeping 
bad  company.)  “And  this  unfortunate  angel  was  not 
restored  till  he  had  obtained,  it  is  not  said  how,  the 
prayers  of  St.  Basil.  His  condition  meantime,  from 
the  sixth  day  of  the  creation  to  the  fourth  century  of 
the  Christian  era,  must  have  been  even  more  uncom- 

* Sutherland  Gal. 

t “La  messe  de  Saint  BasileJ*^  Louvre,  Ecole  Fran^aise,  508. 


358  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

fortable  than  that  of  Klopstock^s  repentant  demon  in 
The  Messiah/' 

There  are  many  other  beautiful  legendary  stories  of 
St.  Basil,  but,  as  I have  never  met  with  them  in  any 
form  of  Art,  I pass  them  over  here.  One  of  the  most 
striking  has  been  versified  by  Southey  in  his  ballad- 
poem,  <<  All  for  Love."  It  would  afford  a great  va- 
riety of  picturesque  subjects. 


St.  Athanasius. 

Lat,  S.  Athanasius,  Pater  Orthodoxiae.  ItaU  Sant’  Atanasio. 

Fr.  St.  Athanase.  May  2,  A.  D.  373. 

St.  Athanasius,  whose  famous  Creed  remains  a 
stumbling-block  in  Christendom,  was  born  at  Alexan- 
dria, about  the  year  298  ; he  was  consequently  the 
eldest  of  the  Greek  Fathers,  though  he  does  not  in  that 
Church  take  the  first  rank.  He,  like  the  others,  began 
his  career  by  the  study  of  profane  literature,  science, 
and  eloquence;  but,  seized  by  the  religious  spirit  of 
the  age,  he,  too,  fled  to  the  desert,  and  became,  for  a 
time,  the  pupil  of  St.  Anthony.  He  returned  to  Alex- 
andria, and  was  ordained  deacon.  His  first  appear- 
ance as  a public  character  was  at  the  celebrated  council 
of  Nice  (a.  d.  325),  where  he  opposed  Arius  and  his 
partisans  with  so  much  zeal  and  eloquence,  that  he  was 
thenceforth  regarded  as  the  great  pillar  of  orthodoxy. 
He  became  Bishop  of  Alexandria  the  following  year ; 
and  the  rest  of  his  life  was  a perpetual  contest  with  the 
Arians.  The  great  schism  of  the  early  Church  blazed 
at  this  time  in  the  East  and  in  the  West,  and  Athana- 
sius, by  his  invincible  perseverance  and  intrepidity, 
procured  the  victory  for  the  Catholic  party.  He  died 
in  372,  after  having  been  Bishop  of  Alexandria  forty- 
six  years,  of  which  twenty  years  had  been  spent  in 
exile  and  tribulation. 


ST,  GREGORY  NAZI  AN  ZEN. 


359 


It  is  curious  that,  notwithstanding  his  fame  and  his 
importance  in  the  Church,  St.  Athanasius  should  be, 
as  a patron  and  a subject  of  Art,  of  all  saints  the  most 
unpopular.  He  figures,  of  course,  as  one  of  the  series 
of  Greek  Doctors  ; but  I have  never  met  with  any 
separate  representation  of  him,  and  I know  not  any 
church  dedicated  to  him,  nor  any  picture  representing 
the  vicissitudes  of  his  unquiet  life,  fraught  as  it  was 
with  strange  reverses  and  picturesque  incidents.  Such 
may  exist,  but  in  Western  Art,  at  least,  they  have 
never  been  prominent.  According  to  the  Greek  for- 
mula, he  ought  to  be  represented  old,  bald-headed,  and 
with  a long  white  beard. 

St.  Gregory  Nazianzen. 

Gr.  St.  Gregory  Theologos.  Lat.  S.  Gregorius  Nazianzenus. 

Ital.  San  Gregorio  Nazianzeno.  Fr.  S.  Gregoire  de  Nazi- 

ance.  Ger.  S.  Gregor  von  Nazianz.  May  9,  a.  d.  390. 

This  Doctor,  like  St.  Basil,  was  one  of  a family  of 
saints ; his  father,  St.  Gregory,  having  been  bishop  of 
Nazianzus  before  him  ; his  mother,  St.  Nonna,  famous 
for  her  piety  ; and  two  of  his  sisters,  St.  Gorgonia  and 
St.  Cesarea,  also  canonized.  Gregory  was  born  about 
the  year  328  ; and  his  mother,  who  fondly  believed 
that  he  had  been  granted  to  her  prayers,  watched  over  his 
early  education,  and  guided  his  first  steps  in  piety  and 
literature.  When  a boy,  he  had  a singular  dream, 
which  he  has  related  himself.  He  beheld  in  his  sleep 
two  virgins  of  celestial  beauty ; they  were  clothed  in 
white  garments,  and  their  faces  shone  upon  him  like 
two  stars  out  of  heaven  : they  took  him  in  their  arms 
and  kissed  him  as  if  he  had  been  their  child.  He, 
charmed  by  their  virgin  beauty  and  their  caresses, 
asked  who  they  were,  and  whence  they  came  ? One  of 
them  replied,  I am  called  Chastity,  and  my  sister 
here  is  Temperance  ; we  come  to  thee  from  Paradise, 
where  we  stand  continually  before  the  throne  of  Christ, 


36o  sacred  and  LEGENDARY  ART, 

and  taste  ineffable  delights : come  to  us,  my  son,  and 
dwell  with  us  forever  ” ; and  having  spoken  thus, 
they  left  him  and  flew  upwards  to  heaven.  He  fol- 
lowed them  with  longing  eyes  till  they  disappeared, 
and  as  he  stretched  his  arms  towards  them  he  awoke. 

This  dream  — how  natural  in  a boy  educated  be- 
tween a tender  mother,  who  had  shielded  him,  as  only 
mothers  can,  against  all  sinful  temptations,  and  a 
lovely  and  saintly  sister  ! — he  regarded  as  a direct  rev- 
elation from  Heaven ; it  decided  his  future  life,  and  he 
made  a vow  of  perpetual  continence  and  temperance. 
Like  the  other  Greek  doctors,  he  began  by  the  study  of 
profane  literature  and  rhetoric.  He  went  to  Athens, 
where  he  formed  an  enduring  friendship  with  St.  Basil, 
and  pursued  his  studies  with  Julian,  afterwards  Caesar 
and  Apostate.  After  leaving  Athens,  in  his  thirtieth 
year,  he  was  baptized;  and,  devoting  himself  solemnly 
to  the  service  of  God  and  the  study  of  the  Scriptures, 
like  his  friend  Basil,  he  destroyed  his  health  by  his 
austerities  and  mortifications  : he  confesses  that  they 
were  wholly  repugnant  to  his  nature,  — a nature  sensi- 
tive, imaginative,  poetical ; but  this  of  course  only 
added  to  their  merit  and  efficacy.  His  aged  father 
withdrew  him  from  his  solitude,  and  ordained  him  as 
his  coadjutor  : in  362  he  succeeded  to  the  bishopric  of 
Nazianus  : but  great  part  of  his  time  was  still  spent  at 
Constantinople,  whither  he  was  invited  to  preach 
against  the  Arians.  It  was  a strange  spectacle  to  see, 
in  the  capital  of  the  world,  a man,  from  a distant  prov- 
ince and  an  obscure  town,  of  small,  shrunken  stature, 
bald-headed,  wrinkled,  haggard  with  vigils  and  fasting, 
poor,  ill-elothed,  and  in  his  address  unpolished  and 
abrupt,  stand  up  to  oppose  himself  to  a luxurious 
court  and  prevalent  sect.  The  people  began  by  stoning 
him  ; but  at  length  his  earnestness  and  eloquence  over- 
came all  opposition. 

Religious  disputes  were  the  fashion  at  that  time  in 
Constantinople,  not  merely  among  the  priesthood,  but 
among  the  laity,  the  lawyers,  and  above  all  the  women, 


ST.  GREGORY  NAZI  AN  ZEN.  361 

who  were  heard,  in  assemblies  and  at  feasts,  at  home 
and  abroad,  declaiming  and  arguing  on  the  most 
abstruse  mysteries  of  the  evangelical  doctrine,  till  they 
lost  temper  and  modesty  : — so  true  it  is,  that  there  is 
nothing  new  under  the  sun.  This  was  in  378,  and  St. 
Gregory  found  more  difficulty  in  silencing  their  squab- 
bles than  in  healing  the  schisms  of  the  Church.  He 
was  ordained  Bishop  of  Constantinople  by  the  favor 
of  Theodosius  ; but,  unable  to  endure  the  odious  cabals 
and  uncharitable  contests  which  at  that  time  distracted 
and  disgraced  Christianity,  he  resigned  his  sacred  office, 
and  retired  to  a small  paternal  estate,  where  he  lived, 
with  his  usual  self-denial  and  austerity,  till  his  death. 
He  composed  in  his  retreat  a number  of  beautiful 
poems  in  his  native  Greek : he  was,  in  fact,  the  earli- 
est Christian  poet  on  record.  These  poems  are  not 
hymns  only,  but  lyrics,  in  which  he  poured  forth  his 
soul,  his  aspirations,  his  temptations,  his  joys,  his  suf- 
ferings, his  plaintive  supplications  to  Christ,  to  aid  him 
in  his  perpetual  combats  against  a too  vivid  imagina- 
tion, and  feelings  and  passions  which  not  even  age 
and  penance  had  subdued. 

St.  Gregory  Nazianzen  ought  to  be  represented  as 
an  old  man,  wasted  by  fasting  and  vigils,  with  a bald 
head,  a long  beard  of  a reddish  color,  and  eyebrows 
the  same.  He  is  always  the  last  in  a series  of  the 
Four  Greek  Fathers,  and,  though  often  occurring  in 
Greek  Art,  the  popularity  of  St.  Gregory  the  Great 
has  completely  banished  St.  Gregory  the  Poet  from 
Western  Art. 

There  remains,  however,  a very  valuable  and  sin- 
gular monument  to  the  honor  of  St.  Gregory  Nazian- 
zen, in  the  Greek  MS.  of  his  sermons  preserved  in  the 
Imperial  Library  at  Paris,  and  adorned  with  Byzantine 
miniatures,  which  must  once  have  been  beautiful  and 
brilliant : ruined  as  they  are,  they  present  some  of  the 
most  ancient  examples  which  remain  to  us  of  the 
treatment  of  many  sacred  subjects  from  the  Old  and 


362  BACKED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

the  New  Testament,  and  give  a high  idea  of  the  classic 
taste  and  the  skill  of  the  Byzantine  limners  of  the 
ninth  century.  Besides  the  sacred  subjects,  we  have 
numerous  scenes  interspersed  from  the  life  of  Gregory 
himself,  his  friend,  St.  Basil,  and  the  Emperor  Theo- 
dosius. As  these  are  subjects  which  are  exceptional,  I 
need  not  describe  them.  Of  the  style  of  the  minia- 
tures I have  already  spoken. 


St.  Cyril. 

Lat.  S.  Cyrillus.  Ital.  San  Cirillo.  Fr.  S.  Cyrille. 

Jan.  28,  a.  d.  444. 

St.  Cyril,  Patriarch  of  Alexandria  from  the  year  412 
to  444,  was  famous  in  his  time  as  deeply  engaged  in 
all  the  contests  which  disturbed  the  early  Christian 
Church.  He  has  left  a great  number  of  theological 
writings,  which  are  regarded  as  authority  in  matters  of 
faith.  He  appears  to  have  been  violent  against  the  so- 
called  heresies  of  that  day,  and  opposed  Nestorius  with 
the  same  determined  zeal  and  inexorable  firmness  with 
which  Athanasius  had  opposed  Arius.  The  ascend- 
ency of  Cyril  was  disgraced  by  the  death  of  the  famous 
female  mathematician  and  philosopher  Hypatia,  mur- 
dered with  horrible  cruelty,  and  within  the  walls  of  a 
church,  by  the  fanatic  followers  of  the  Patriarch,  if  he 
did  not  himself  connive  at  it.  He  is  much  more  ven- 
erated in  the  Greek  than  in  the  Latin  Church.  In  the 
Greek  representations  he  is  the  only  bishop  who  has 
his  head  covered ; he  wears  a veil  or  hood,  coming 
over  his  head,  falling  down  on  his  shoulders,  and  the 
front  embroidered  with  a cross. 

With  the  Greek  Fathers  I conclude  the  list  of  those 
saints  who  are  generally  represented  in  their  collective 
character,  grouped,  or  in  a series. 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE,  ST.  MARTHA, 
ST.  LAZARUS,  ST.  MAXIMIN,  ST.  MAR- 
CELLA, ST.  MARY  OF  EGYPT,  AND 
THE  BEATIFIED  PENITENTS. 


St.  Mart  Magdalene. 

Lat.  Sancta  Maria  Magdalena.  Ital.  Santa  Maria  Maddalena. 
Fr.  La  Madeleine.  La  Sainte  Demoiselle  pecheresse.  July  22, 
A.  D.  68  Patroness  of  Provence,  of  Marseilles,  and  of  frail  and 
penitent  women. 

all  the  personages  who  figure  in  history, 
1 poetry,  in  art,  Mary  Magdalene  is  at 
nee  the  most  unreal  and  the  most  real : — 
^e  most  unreal,  if  we  attempt  to  fix  her 
identity,  whieh  has  been  a subjeet  of  dispute  for  ages  ; 
the  most  real,  if  we  eonsider  her  as  having  been,  for 
ages,  reeognized  and  aeeepted  in  every  Christian  heart 
as  the  impersonation  of  the  penitent  sinner  absolved 
through  faith  and  love.  In  this,  her  mythic  character, 
she  has  been  surrounded  by  associations  which  have 
become  fixed  in  the  imagination,  and  which  no  reason- 
ing, no  array  of  facts,  can  dispel.  This  is  not  the 
place  to  enter  into  disputed  points  of  Biblical  criticism ; 
they  are  quite  beside  our  present  purpose.  Whether 
Mary  Magdalene,  “ out  of  whom  Jesus  cast  seven 
devils,’’  Mary  of  Bethany,  and  the  “ woman  who 
was  a sinner,”  be,  as  some  authorities  assert,  three 
distinct  persons,  or,  as  others  affirm,  one  and  the  same 


364  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

individual  under  different  designations,  remains  a ques- 
tion open  to  dispute,  nothing  having  been  demonstrated 
on  eitlier  side,  from  Scripture  or  from  tradition ; and 
I cannot  presume  even  to  give  an  opinion  where  doc- 
tors — and  doctors  of  the  Church,  too  — disagree  ; 
Origen  and  St.  Chrysostom  taking  one  side  of  the 
question,  St.  Clement  and  St.  Gregory  the  other, 
rieury,  after  citing  the  opinions  of  both  sides,  thu^ 
beautifully  sums  up  the  whole  question  : — ^‘11  im- 
porte  de  ne  pas  croire  temerairement  ce  que  TEvangile 
ne  dit  point,  et  de  ne  pas  mettre  la  religion  a suivre 
aveuglement  toutes  les  opinions  populaires  : la  foi  est 
trop  precieuse  pour  la  prodiguer  ainsi ; mais  la  charite 
Test  encore  plus ; et  ce  qui  est  le  plus  important,  e’est 
d’eviter  les  disputes  qui  peuvent  Talterer  tant  soit  peu.” 
And  this  is  most  true  ; -^^n  his  time  the  fast  hold 
which  the  Magdalene  had  taken  of  the  affections  of 
the  people  was  not  to  be  shaken  by  theological  re- 
searches and  doubts.  Here  critical  accuracy  was  noth- 
ing less  than  profanation  and  scepticism,  and  to  have 
attacked  the  sanctity  of  the  Blessed  Mary  Magdalene 
would  have  embittered  and  alienated  many  kindly  and 
many  believing  spirits.  It  is  difficult  to  treat  of  Mary 
Magdalene ; and  this  difficulty  would  be  increased  in- 
finitely if  it  were  absolutely  necessary  to  enter  on  the 
much- vexed  question  of  her  Scriptural  character  and 
identity : one  thing  only  appears  certain,  — that  such 
a person,  whatever  might  have  been  her  veritable  ap- 
pellation, did  exist.  The  woman  who,  under  the  name 
of  Mary  Magdalene,  — whether  that  name  be  right- 
fully or  wrongfully  bestowed,  — stands  before  us,  sanc- 
tified in  the  imagination  and  in  the  faith  of  the  people 
in  her  combined  character  of  Sinner  and  of  Saint,  as 
the  first-fruits  of  Christian  penitence,  — is  a reality, 
and  not  a fiction.  Even  if  we  would,  we  cannot  do 
away  with  the  associations  inseparably  connected  with 
her  name  and  her  image.  Of  all  those  to  whom  much 
has  been  forgiven,  she  was  the  first : of  all  the  tears 
since  ruefully  shed  at  the  foot  of  the  cross  of  suffering. 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE.  365 

hers  were  the  first : of  all  the  hopes  which  the  Kcsur- 
rection  has  since  diffused  through  nations  and  genera- 
tions of  men,  hers  were  the  first.  To  her  sorrowful 
image  how  many  have  looked  up  through  tears,  and 
blessed  the  pardoning  grace  of  which  she  was  the  sym- 
bol, — or  rather  the  impersonation ! Of  the  female 
saints,  some  were  the  chosen  patrons  of  certain  vir- 
tues, — others  of  certain  vocations ; but  the  accepted 
and  glorified  penitent  threw  her  mantle  over  all,  and 
more  especially  over  those  of  her  own  sex  who,  having 
gone  astray,  were  recalled  from  error  and  from  shame, 
and  laid  down  their  wrongs,  their  sorrows,  and  their 
sins  in  trembling  humility  at  the  feet  of  the  Ke- 
deemer. 

Nor  is  it  only  the  popularity  of  Mary  Magdalene  as 
the  representative  and  the  patroness  of  repentant  sin- 
ners which  has  multiplied  her  image  through  all  Chris- 
tendom. As  a subject  for  painting, 

“ Whether  the  fair  one  sinner  it  or  saint  it,” 

it  is  rich  in  picturesque  capabilities.  It  combines  all 
that  can  inspire,  with  all  that  can  chasten  the  fancy ; 
yet,  when  we  review  what  has  been  done,  how  inade- 
quate the  result ! In  no  class  of  subjects  have  the 
mistakes  of  the  painters,  even  the  most  distinguished, 
been  so  conspicuous  as  in  the  representation  of  the 
penitent  Magdalene ; and  it  must  be  allowed  that, 
with  all  its  advantages  and  attractions,  it  is  a subject 
full  of  perils  and  difficulties.  Where  the  penitent  pre- 
vails, the  saint  appears  degraded ; where  the  wasted, 
unclad  form  is  seen  attenuated  by  vigils  and  exposed 
in  haggard  unseemliness,  it  is  a violation  of  that  first 
great  rule  of  Art  which  forbids  the  repulsive  and  the 
painful.  And  herein  lies  the  fault  of  the  earlier  schools, 
and  particularly  of  the  old  Greek  and  German  paint- 
ers ; — their  matter-of-fact  ugliness  would  be  intolerable, 
if  not  redeemed  by  the  intention  and  sentiment.  On 
the  other  hand,  where  sensual  beauty  has  obviously 
been  the  paramount  idea  in  the  artist’s  work,  defeating 


366  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

its  holiest  purpose  and  perverting  its  high  significance, 
the  violation  of  the  moral  sentiment  is  yet  more  revolt- 
ing. This  is  especially  the  fault  of  the  later  painters, 
more  particularly  of  the  schools  of  Venice  and  Bo- 
logna : while  the  French  painters  are  yet  worse,  adding 
affectation  to  licentiousness  of  sentiment  the  Abbe 
Mery  exclaims  with  reasonable  and  pious  indignation 
against  that  air  de  galanterie  ” which  in  his  time  was 
regarded  as  characteristic  of  Mary  Magdalene.  The 
‘‘  larmoyantes  penitents  of  Greuze  — Magdalenes  a 
la  Pompadour  — are  more  objectionable  to  my  taste 
than  those  of  Rubens. 

^ I shall  give  the  legend  of  the  Magdalene  here  as  it 
was  accepted  by  the  people,  and  embodied  by  the  arts, 
of  the  middle  ages,  setting  aside  those  Eastern  tradi- 
tions which  represent  the  Mary  of  Bethany  and  the 
Magdalene  as  distinct  personages,  and  place  the  death 
and  burial-place  of  Mary  Magdalene  at  Ephesus.  Our 
business  is  with  the  Western  legend,  which  has  been 
the  authority  for  Western  Art.  This  legend,  besides 
attributing  to  one  individual,  and  blending  into  one 
narrative,  the  very  few  scattered  notices  in  the  Gospels, 
has  added  some  other  incidents,  inconceivably  wild  and 
incredible,  leaving  her,  however,  the  invariable  attri- 
butes of  the  frail,  loving  woman,  the  sorrowing  peni- 
tent, and  the  devout,  enthusiastic  saint. 

Mary  Magdalene  was  of  the  district  of  Magdala,  on 
the  shores  of  the  sea  of  Galilee,  where  stood  her  castle, 
called  Magdalon ; she  was  the  sister  of  Lazarus  and 
of  Martha,  and  they  were  the  children  of  parents  re- 
puted noble,  or,  as  some  say,  of  royal  race.  On  the 
death  of  their  father,  Syrus,  they  inherited  vast  riches 
and  possessions  in  land,  which  were  equally  divided 
between  them.  Lazarus  betook  himself  to  the  military 
life  ; Martha  ruled  her  possessions  with  great  discre- 
tion, and  was  a model  of  virtue  and  propriety,  — per- 
haps a little  too  much  addicted  to  worldly  cares : Mary, 
on  the  contrary,  abandoned  herself  to  luxurious  pleas- 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE.  367 

ures,  and  became  at  length  so  notorious  for  her  disso- 
lute life,  that  she  was  known  through  all  the  country 
round  only  as  the  Sinner/'  Her  discreet  sister, 
Martha,  frequently  rebuked  her  for  these  disorders,  and 
at  length  persuaded  her  to  listen  to  the  exhortations  of 
Jesus,  through  which  her  heart  was  touched  and  con- 
verted. The  seven  demons  which  possessed  her,  and 
which  were  expelled  by  the  power  of  the  Lord,  were 
the  seven  deadly  sins  to  which  she  was  given  over  be- 
fore her  conversion.  On  one  occasion  Martha  enter- 
tained the  Saviour  in  her  house,  and,  being  anxious  to 
feast  him  worthily,  she  was  “ cumbered  with  much 
serving."  Mary,  meanwhile,  sat  at  the  feet  of  Jesus, 
and  heard  his  words,  which  completed  the  good  work 
of  her  conversion ; and  when,  some  time  afterwards, 
he  supped  in  the  house  of  Simon  the  Pharisee,  she  fol- 
lowed him  thither,  and  she  brought  an  alabaster  box 
of  ointment,  and  began  to  wash  his  feet  with  tears,  and 
did  wipe  them  with  the  hair  of  her  head,  and  kissed 
his  feet,  and  anointed  them  with  ointment ; and  He 
said  unto  her.  Thy  sins  are  forgiven."  She  became 
afterwards  one  of  the  most  devoted  of  his  followers ; 
“ ministered  to  him  of.  her  substance  " ; attended  him 
to  Calvary,  and  stood  weeping  at  the  foot  of  the  cross. 
She,  with  the  other  Mary,  watched  by  his  tomb,  and 
was  the  first  to  whom  he  appeared  after  the  resurrec- 
tion ; her  unfaltering  faith,  mingled  as  it  was  with  the 
intensest  grief  and  love,  obtained  for  her  this  peculiar 
mark  of  favor.  It  is  assumed  by  several  commentators 
that  our  Saviour  appeared  first  to  Mary  Magdalene  be- 
cause she,  of  all  those  whom  he  had  left  on  earth,  had 
most  need  of  consolation  : The  disciples  went  away 
to  their  own  home ; but  Mary  stood  without  the  sepulchre, 
weeping.** 

Thus  far  the  notices  in  the  Gospel  and  the  sugges- 
tions of  commentators  : the  old  Proven9al  legend  then 
continues  the  story.  After  the  ascension,  Lazarus  with 
his  two  sisters,  Martha  and  Mary ; with  Maximin,  one 


368  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

of  the  seventy-two  disciples,  from  whom  they  had  re- 
ceived baptism  ; Cedon,  the  blind  man  whom  our 
Saviour  had  restored  to  sight  ; and  Marcella,  the 
handmaiden  who  attended  on  the  two  sisters,  — were 
by  the  heathens  set  adrift  in  a vessel  without  sails, 
oars,  or  rudder  ; but,  guided  by  Providence,  they 
were  safely  borne  over  the  sea  till  they  landed  in  a 
certain  harbor  which  proved  to  be  Marseilles,  in  the 
country  no\^^  called  France.  The  people  of  the  land 
were  Pagans,  and  refused  to  give  the  holy  pilgrims 
food  or  shelter ; so  they  were  fain  to  take  refuge  under 
the  porch  of  a temple ; and  Mary  Magdalene  preached 
to  the  people,  reproaching  them  for  their  senseless  wor- 
ship of  dumb  idols ; and  though  at  first  they  would 
not  listen,  yet  being  after  a time  convinced  by  her  elo- 
quence, and  by  the  miracles  performed  by  her  and  by 
her  sister,  they  were  converted  and  baptized.  And 
Lazarus  became,  after  the  death  of  the  good  Maximin, 
the  first  bishop  of  Marseilles. 

These  things  being  accomplished,  Mary  Magdalene 
retired  to  a desert  not  far  from  the  city.  It  was  a 
frightful,  barren  wilderness,  in  the  midst  of  horrid  rocks 
and  caves  : and  here  for  thirty  .years  she  devoted  her- 
self to  solitary  penance  for  the  sins  of  her  past  life, 
which  she  had  never  ceased  to  bewail  bitterly.  During 
this  long  seclusion,  she  was  never  seen  or  heard  of,  and 
it  was  supposed  that  she  was  dead.  She  fasted  so  rigor- 
ously, that  but  for  the  occasional  visits  of  the  angels, 
and  the  comfort  bestowed  by  celestial  visions,  she 
must  have  perished.  Every  day,  during  the  last  years 
of  her  penance,  the  angels  came  down  from  heaven 
and  carried  her  up  in  their  arms  into  regions  where 
she  was  ravished  by  the  sounds  of  unearthly  harmony, 
and  beheld  the  glory  and  the  joy  prepared  for  the  sinner 
that  repenteth.  One  day  a certain  hermit,  who  dwelt 
in  a cell  on  one  of  those  wild  mountains,  having  wan- 
dered farther  than  usual  from  his  home,  beheld  this 
wondrous  vision,  — the  Magdalene  in  the  arms  of 
ascending  angels,  who  were  singing  songs  of  triumph 


ST,  MARY  MAGDALENE, 


369 

as  they  bore  her  upwards ; and  the  hermit,  when  ho 
had  a little  recovered  from  his  amazement,  returned  to 
the  city  of  Marseilles,  and  reported  what  he  had  seen* 
According  to  some  of  the  legends,  Mary  Magdalene 
died  within  the  walls  of  the  Christian  church,  after 
receiving  the  sacrament  from  the  hand  of  St.  Maximin  ; 
but  the  more  popular  accounts  represent  her  as  dying 
in  her  solitude,  while  angels  watched  over  and  minis- 
tered to  her. 

The  middle  of  the  thirteenth  century  was  an  era  of 
religious  excitement  all  over  the  South  of  Europe.  A 
sudden  fit  of  penitence,  — “ una  subita  compunzione,” 
as  an  Italian  author  calls  it,  seized  all  hearts ; relics 
and  pilgrimages,  and  penances  and  monastic  ordi- 
nances, filled  all  minds.  About  this  period,  certain 
remains,  supposed  to  be  those  of  Mary  Magdalene  and 
Lazarus,  were  discovered  at  a place  since  called  St* 
Maximin,  about  twenty  miles  north  of  Toulon.  Tho 
discovery  strongly  excited  the  devotion  and  enthusiasm 
of  the  people  ; and  a church  was  founded  on  the  spot 
by  Charles,  count  of  Provence  (the  brother  of  St. 
Louis),  as  early  as  1279.  A few  years  afterwards,  this 
prince  was  vanquished  and  taken  prisoner  by  the  king 
of  Aragon,  and  when  at  length  set  free  after  a long 
captivity,  he  ascribed  his  deliverance  particularly  to  tho 
intercession  of  his  chosen  patroness,  Mary  Magdalene. 
This  incident  greatly  extended  her  fame  as  a saint  of 
power;  and  from  this  time  we  may  date  her  popularity, 
and  those  sculptural  and  pictorial  representations  of 
her,  under  various  aspects,  which,  from  the  fourteenth 
century  to  the  present  time,  have  so  multiplied,  that 
scarcely  any  Catholic  place  of  worship  is  to  be  found 
without  her  image.  In  fact,  it  is  difficult  for  us,  in 
these  days,  to  conceive,  far  more  difficult  to  sympa- 
thize with,  the  passionate  admiration  and  devotion  with 
which  she  was  regarded  by  her  votaries  in  the  middle 
ages.  The  imputed  sinfulness  of  her  life  only  brought 
her  nearer  to  them.  Those  who  did  not  dare  to  lift 
24 


370  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

up  their  eyes  to  the  more  saintly  models  of  purity  and 
holiness,  — to  the  martyrs  who  had  suffered  in  the 
cause  of  chastity,  — took  courage  to  invoke  her  inter- 
cession. i The  extravagant  titles  bestowed  upon  her  in 
the  middle  ages,  — “ Vamante  de  Jesus  Christ”  “/a  hien- 
aimee  du  Sauveur,”  ‘‘  la  tres-saincte  demoiselle  'pecheresse” 
— and  others  which  I should  hardly  dare  to  transcribe, 
show  the  spirit  in  which  she  was  worshipped,  particu- 
larly in  the  South  of  France,  and  the  kind  of  chivalrous 
sentiment  which  mingled  with  the  devotion  of  her 
adorers.  I found  in  an  old  French  sermon  a culogium 
of  Mary  Magdalene,  which  for  its  eloquence  and  inge- 
nuity seems  to  me  without  a parallel.  The  preacher, 
while  acknowledging  the  excesses  which  brought  her  a 
penitent  to  the  feet  of  Christ,  is  perfectly  scandalized 
that  she  should  be  put  on  a par  with  common  sinners 
of  the  same  class,  and  that  on  the  faith  of  a passage  in 
St.  Luke,  On  a ose  fletrir  une  des  plus  belles  ames 
qui  soit  jamais  sortie  des  mains  du  Createur  ! ” He 
rather  glorifies  her  as  a kind  of  Aspasia,  to  whom, 
indeed,  he  in  a manner  compares  her.* 

* “ Pour  vous  ramener  i des  idees  plus  favorables  k la  Made- 
leine, vous  transportant  au  temps  et  aux  circonstances  ou  vecut 
cette  celebre  Israelite,  je  pourrais  vous  dire,  Messieurs,  que 
Pantiquite,  ne  jugeant  pas  equitable  d’exiger  plus  de  vertu  du 
sexe  repute  pour  le  plus  faible,  ne  croyait  pas  les  femmes  des- 
honorees  de  ce  qui  ne  deshonorait  pas  les  hommes  k ses  yeux  ; 
qu’elle  a d’ailleurs  toujours  ete  bien  moins  severe  k des  senti- 
ments qui,  naissant  avec  nous,  lui  paraissaient  une  partie  de 
nous-memes,  et  qu’elle  n’attacha  jamais  aucune  idee  fletrissante 
aux  suites  d’une  passion  qu’elle  trouvait  presque  aussi  pardonna- 
ble  que  naturelle.  Les  graces  de  la  beaute  etaient  alors  re- 
gardees  comme  les  autres  talents  ; et  I’art  de  plaire,  aussi  au- 
torise que  les  autres  arts,  loin  d’inspirer  de  I’eloignement,”  &c. 

After  describing  in  glowing  terms,  her  splendid  position  in  the 
world,  her  illustrious  rank,  her  understanding,  so/zde,  et 

delicatp  her  *‘^grace^'‘  her  “ esprit^'*  her  wondrous  beauty,  par- 
ticularly her  superb  hair,  “ cultive  avec  tant  de  soin^  arrange 
avec  tant  d^art  ” ; and  lamenting  that  a creature  thus  nobly 
gifted  should  have  been  cast  away  upon  the  same  rock  which  had 
shipwrecked  the  greatest,  the  most  illustrious,  of  her  compatriotest 


ST,  MARY  MAGDALENE. 


371 

The  traditional  scene  of  the  penance  of  the  Magda- 
lene, a wild  spot  between  Toulon  and  Marseilles,  is  the 

“Zc  fort  Samson^  le  preux  Darnd,  le  sage  Solomon'*"*  ^ h© 
goes  on  to  describe,  with  real  eloquence,  and  in  a less  ofifensive 
Strain  of  panegyric,  her  devotion  at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  her  pious 
visit  to  the  tomb  by  break  of  day,  braving  the  fury  of  the  guards, 
the  cruelty  of  the  Jews,  and  taking  the  place  of  the  apostles,  who 
were  dispersed  or  fled.  And  thus  he  winds  up  with  a moral,  most 
extraordinary  when  we  recollect  that  it  was  preached  from  a pul- 
pit by  a grave  doctor  in  theology : — 

“ Jeunes  personnes  qui  vivez  encore  dans  I’innocence  ! ap- 
prenez  done  de  la  Madeleine,  combien  grands  sont  les  perils  de 
la  jeunesse,  de  la  beaute,  de  tons  les  dons  purement  naturels  j 
souvenez-vous  que  le  desir  excessif  de  plaire  est  toujours  dan- 
gereux,  rarement  innocent,  et  qu’il  est  bien  diflacile  de  donner 
beaucoup  de  sentiments,  sans  en  prendre  soimeme.  A la  vue  des 
faiblesses  do  la  jeune  Israelite,  comprenez  de  quelle  importance 
est,  pour  vous,  la  garde  de  votre  coeur  5 et  k quels  desordres  il 
vous  expose,  si  vous  ne  vous  accoutumez  k le  contrarier  sans 
cesse,  en  tous  ses  penchants. 

“ Femmes  mondaines,  et  peut-etre  voluptueuses  ! apprenez  de 
la  Madeleine  k revenir  de  vos  ecarts  *,  ils  ont  ete,  dans  vous,  le 
fruit  de  la  faiblesse  humaine  j que  votre  retour  soit  le  fruit  de 
votre  correspondance  k la  grace.  Et  pourriez-vous  ou  vous  pro- 
poser un  modMe  plus  digne  d’etre  suivi  que  celui  que  vous 
presente  Madeleine,  ou  trouver  ailleurs  un  motif  plus  puissant  de 
le  suivre  ? 

“ Et  vous  qui,  fieres  d’une  reserve  que  vous  ne  devez  peut- 
6tre  qu’a  votre  insensibilite,  vous  en  faites  un  rempart,  k I’abri 
duquel  vous  croyez  pouvoir  mepriser  toute  la  terre,  et  dont  la 
mondanite  de  Madeleine  elle-meme  a peut-etre  scandalise  la 
precieuse  vertu  ! femmes  plus  vaines  que  sages  ! apprenez  de 
notre  Sainte,  qu’il  n’y  a que  la  grice  de  Dieu  et  une  attention 
continuelle  sur  nous-memes  qui  puissent  nous  aider  constamment 
centre  la  pente  qui  nous  precipite  vers  le  mal  ; et  craignez  qu’ou 
ne  puisse  vous  dire,  k son  sujet,  ce  que  Saint  Augustin  disait  k 
une  devote  de  votre  caract^re,  pleine  d’elle-meme  et  medisante  : 
* Pint  k Dieu  que  vous  eussiez  donne  dans  les  memes  exces  dont 
vous  croyez-si  volontiers  les  autres  capables  ! vous  seriez  moins 
41oign<§e  du  royaume  de  Dieu ; du  moins  vous  auriez  de 
I’humanite  ! ’” 

Le  Brun’s  Magdalene  is  just  the  Magdalene  described  by  this 
preacher : both  one  and  the  other  are  as  like  the  Magdalene  of 
Scripture,  as  Leo  X.  was  like  St.  Peter. 


372  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

site  of  a famous  convent  called  La  Sainte  Beaume 
(which  in  the  Proven9al  tongue  signifies  Holy  Cave), 
formerly  a much  frequented  place  of  pilgrimage.  It  is 
built  on  the  verge  of  a formidable  precipice ; near  it  is 
the  grotto  in  which  the  saint  resided ; and  to  Mount 
Pilon,  a rocky  point  about  six  hundred  feet  above  the 
grotto,  the  angels  bore  her  seven  times  a day  to  prayi 
This  convent  was  destroyed  and  pillaged  at  the  com- 
mencement of  the  French  Revolution.  It  was  filled 
with  relics  and  works  of  art,  referring  to  the  life  and 
the  worship  of  the  Magdalene. 

But  the  most  sumptuous  fane  ever  erected  to  her 
special  honor  is  that  which,  of  late  years,  has  arisen 
in  the  city  of  Paris.  The  church,  or  rather  the  temple> 
of  La  Madeleine  stands  an  excelling  monument,  if 
not  of  modern  piety,  at  least  of  modern  Art.  It  is 
built  on  the  model  of  the  temple  of  Jupiter  at  Athens. 

“ That  noble  type  is  realized  again 
In  perfect  form;  and  dedicate  — to  whom  ? 

To  a poor  Syrian  girl  of  lowliest  name,  — 

A hapless  creature,  pitiful  and  frail 
As  ever  wore  her  life  in  sin  and  shame  ? ” 

R.  M.  Milnes. 

The  saint,  whether  she  were  “ the  lowly  Syrian  girl  ’’ 
or  the  ‘‘  Princess  of  Magdala,”  would  be  equally  aston- 
ished to  behold  herself  thus  honored  with  a sort  of 
pagan  magnificence  in  the  midst  of  a luxurious  capital, 
and  by  a people  more  remarkable  for  scoffing  than  for 
praying.  Even  in  the  successive  vicissitudes  of  this 
splendid  edifice  there  is  something  strange.  That 
which  is  now  the  temple  of  the  lowly  penitent  was,  a 
few  years  ago,  Le  Temple  de  la  Gloire. 

Let  us  now  turn  to  those  characteristic  representa- 
tions with  which  painting  and  sculpture  have  made  us 
familiar,  and  for  which  both  Scripture  and  legendary 
tradition  have  furnished  the  authority  and  the  ground- 
work. These  are  so  numerous  and  so  infinitely  varied 
that  I find  it  necessary  here,  as  in  the  case  of  St.  Jerome, 
to  arrange  them  under  several  heads. 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE. 


373 


The  devotional  representations  may  be  divided  into 
two  classes  : 1 . Those  which  represent  the  Magdalene 
as  patron  saint.  2.  Those  which  represent  her  peni- 
tence in  the  desert. 

The  historical  subjects  may  also  be  divided  into  two 
classes  : 1.  Those  scenes  from  Gospel  story  in  which 
Mary  Magdalene  figures  as  a chief  or  conspicuous 
personage.  2.  The  scenes  taken  from  her  legendary  life. 

In  all  these  subjects  the  accompanying  attribute  is 
the  alabaster  box  of  ointment ; which  has  a double  sig- 
nificance : it  may  be  the  perfume  which  she  poured 
over  the  feet  of  the  Saviour,  or  the  balm  and  spices 
which  she  had  prepared  to  anoint  his  body.  Sometimes 
she  carries  it  in  her  hand,  sometimes  it  stands  at  her 
feet,  or  near  her ; frequently,  in  later  pictures,  it  is 
borne  by  an  attendant  angel.  The  shape  varies  with 
the  fancy  of  the  artist ; it  is  a small  vase,  a casket,  a 
box,  a cup  with  a cover;  more  or  less  ornamented, 
more  or  less  graceful  in  form ; but  always  there,  — the 
symbol  at  once  of  her  conversion  and  her  love,  and  so 
peculiar  that  it  can  leave  no  doubt  of  her  identity. 

Her  drapery  in  the  ancient  pictures  is  usually  red,  to 
express  the  fervor  of  her  love ; in  modern  representa- 
tions, and  where  she  figures  as  penitent,  it  is  either 
blue  or  violet ; violet,  the  color  of  mourning  and  pen- 
itence, — blue,  the  color  of  constancy.  To  express 
both  the  love  and  the  sorrow,  she  sometimes  wears  a 
violet-colored  tunic  and  a red  mantle.  The  luxuriant 
hair  ought  to  be  fair  or  golden.  Dark-haired  Magda- 
lenes,  as  far  as  I can  remember,  belong  exclusively  to 
the  Spanish  school. 

1.  When  exhibited  to  us  as  the  patron  saint  of  re- 
pentant sinners,  Mary  Magdalene  is  sometimes  a thin, 
wasted  figure,  with  long,  dishevelled  hair,  of  a pale 
golden  hue,  falling  over  her  shoulders  almost  to  the 
ground ; sometimes  a skin  or  a piece  of  linen  is  tied 
round  her  loins,  but  not  seldom  her  sole  drapery  is  her 
long,  redundant  hair.  The  most  ancient  single  figure 
of  this  character  to  which  I can  refer  is  an  old  picture 


374  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

in  the  Byzantine  manner,  as  old  perhaps  as  the  thir- 
teenth century,  and  now  in  the  Academy  at  Florence. 
She  is  standing  as  patroness,  covered  only  by  her  long 
hair,  which  falls  in  dark  brown  masses  to  her  feet : the 
color,  I imagine,  was  originally  much  lighter.  She 
is  a meagre,  haggard,  grim-looking  figure,  and  holds 
in  her  hand  a scroll, /on  which  is  inscribed  in  ancient 
Gothic  letters,  — * 

tiesprctetfs 

Uos  qui  peccare  solrtts 
ISpeinplo  ineo 

^ Vos  separate  ©eo.”  * 

Bude  and  unattractive  as  is  this  specimen  of  ancient 
Art,  I could  not  look  at  it  without  thinking  how  often 
it  must  have  spoken  hope  and  peace  to  the  soul  of  the 
trembling  sinner,  in  days  when  it  hung,  not  in  a pic- 
ture-gallery to  be  criticised,  but  in  a shrine  to  be  wor- 
shipped. Around  this  figure,  in  the  manner  of  the  old 
altar-pieces,  are  six  small,  square  compartments,  con- 
taining scenes  from  her  life. 

The  famous  statue  carved  in  wood  by  Donatello,  in 
point  of  character  may  be  referred  to  this  class  of 
subjects  : she  stands  over  her  altar  in  the  Baptistery 
at  Florence,  with  clasped  hands,  the  head  raised  in 
prayer;  the  form  is  very  expressive  of  wasting  grief 
and  penance,  but  too  meagre  for  beauty. la 
voile  specchio  alle  penitenti,  non  incitamento  alia  cupidizia 
degli  sguardLcome  avenue  ad  altri  airtisti/*  says  Cicog- 
nara ; and,  allowing  that  beauty  has  been  sacrificed  to 
expression,  he  adds,  “ But  if  Donatello  had  done  all, 
what  would  have  remained  for  Canova  ? ” That 
which  remained  for  Canova  to  do,  he  has  done  ; he  has 
made  her  as  lovely  as  possible,  and  he  has  dramatized 
the  sentiment : she  is  more  the  penitent  than  the  pa- 
tron saint.  The  display  of  the  beautiful  limbs  is 

* The  original  Latin  distich  runs  thus  : — 

“ Ne  desperetis  vos  qui  peccare  soletis. 

Exemploque  meo  vos  reparte  Deo.” 


ST.  31  ARY  31  AG  DALE NE. 


375 


chastened  by  the  humility  of  the  attitude, — half  kneel- 
ing, half  prostrate  ; by  the  expression  of  the  drooping 
head,  — all  sorrow’s  softness  charmed  from  its  de- 
spair.” Her  eyes  are  fixed  on  the  cross  which  lies  ex- 
tended on  her  knees  ; and  she  weeps,  — not  so  much 
her  own  past  sins,  as  the  sacrifice  it  has  cost  to  redeem 
them.  This  is  the  prevailing  sentiment,  or,  as  the 
Germans  would  call  it,  the  motive  of  the  representation, 
to  which  I should  feel  inclined  to  object  as  deficient  in 
dignity  and  severity,  and  bordering  too  much  on  the 
genre  and  dramatic  style  : but  the  execution  is  almost 
faultless.  Very  beautiful  is  another  modern  statue  of 
the  penitent  Magdalene,  executed  in  marble  for  the 
Count  d’Espagnac,  by  M.  Henri  de  Triqueti.  She  is 
half  seated,  half  reclining,  on  a fragment  of  rock,  and 
pressing  to  her  bosom  a crown  of  thorns,  at  once  the 
mourner  and  the  penitent : the  sorrow  is  not  for  her- 
self alone. 

But,  in  her  character  of  patron  saint,  Mary  Magda- 
lene was  not  always  represented  with  the  squalid  or 
pathetic  attributes  of  humiliation  and  penance.  She 
became  idealized  as  a noble,  dignified  creature,  bearing 
no  traces  of  sin  or  of  sorrow  on  her  beautiful  face  ; her 
luxuriant  hair  bound  in  tresses  round  her  head  ; her 
drapery  rich  and  ample ; the  vase  of  ointment  in  her 
hand  or  at  her  feet,  or  borne  by  an  angel  near  her. 
Not  unfrequently  she  is  attired  with  the  utmost  mag- 
nificence, either  in  reference  to  her  former  state  of 
worldly  prosperity,  or  rather,  perhaps,  that  with  the 
older  painters,  particularly  those  of  the  German  school, 
it  was  a common  custom  to  clothe  all  the  ideal  figures 
of  female  saints  in  rich  habits.  In  the  fourteenth  and 
fifteenth  centuries  such  representations  of  the  Magda- 
lene are  usual  both  in  Italian  and  German  Art.  A 
beautiful  instance  may  be  seen  in  a picture  by  Signo- 
relli, in  the  Cathedral  of  Orvieto,  where  she  is  standing 
in  a landscape,  her  head  uncovered,  and  the  rich  golden 
hair  partly  braided,  partly  flowing  over  her  shoulders  ; 
she  wears  a magnificent  tunic,  embroidered  with  gold, 


376  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

over  it  a flowing  mantle  descending  to  her  feet ; she 
holds  the  vase  with  her  left  hand,  and  points  to  it  with 
her  right.  If  it  were  not  for  the  saintly  aureole  en- 
circling her  head,  this  figure,  and  others  similar  to  it, 
might  be  mistaken  for  Pandora.  See,  for  example,  the 
famous  print  by  Lucas  v.  Leyden,  where  she  stands  on 
clouds,  with  an  embroidered  coif  and  flowing  mantle, 
holding  the  vase  in  her  left  hand,  and  lifting  the  cover 
with  her  right;  and  in  the  half-length  by  Leonardo,  or 
one  of  his  school.  The  want  of  a religious  sentiment 
gives  such  figures  a very  heathen  and  Pandora^  look, 
BO  that  the  aureole  alone  fixes  the  identity This  is 
not  the  case  with  a noble  Magdalene  by  Dennis  Cal- 
vert, in  the  Manfrini  Palace  at  Venice.  She  is  stand- 
ing in  a fine,  bold  landscape ; one  hand  sustains  her 
ample  crimson  drapery,  the  other  holds  her  vase ; her 
fair  hair  falls  in  masses  over  her  shoulders,  and  she 
looks  down  on  her  worshippers  with  a serious,  dignified 
compassion.  This  is  one  of  the  finest  pictures  of  the 
later  Bologna  school,  finer  and  truer  in  sentiment  than 
any  of  the  Caracci  and  Guido  Magdalenes. 

In  this  her  wholly  divine  and  ideal  character  of  saint 
and  intercessor,  Mary  Magdalene  is  often  most  beau- 
tifully introduced  as  standing  near  the  throne  of  the 
Virgin,  or  as  grouped  with  other  saints.  In  two  of 
the  most  famous  pictures  in  the  world  she  is  thus 
represented.  In  the  St.  Cecilia  of  Kaphael,  she  stands 
on  the  left,  St.  Paul  being  on  the  right  of  the  principal 
figure ; they  are  here  significant  of  the  conversion  of 
the  man  through  power,  of  the  woman  through  love, 
from  a state  of  reprobation  to  a state  of  reconcilement 
and  grace.  St.  Paul  leans  in  deep  meditation  on  his 
sword.  Mary  Magdalene  is  habited  in  ample  drapery 
of  blue  and  violet,  which  she  sustains  with  one  hand, 
and  bears  the  vase  in  the  other.  She  looks  out  of  the 
picture  with  a benign  countenance  and  a particularly 
graceful  turn  of  the  head.  Baphaers  original  design 
for  this  picture  (engraved  by  Marc  Antonio)  is,  how- 
ever, preferable  in  the  sentiment  given  to  the  Magda- 


ST.  MAEY  MAGDALENE. 


377 


lene  : she  does  not  look  out  of  the  picture,  but  she 
looks  up : she  also  hears  the  divine  music  which  has 
ravished  St.  Cecilia.  In  the  picture  she  is  either  un- 
conscious or  inattentive. 

In  the  not  less  celebrated  St.  Jerome  of  Correggio 
she  is  on  the  left  of  the  Madonna,  bending  down  with 
an  expression  of  the  deepest  adoration  to  kiss  the  feet 
of  the  Infant  Christ,  while  an  angel  behind  holds  up 
the  vase  of  ointment : thus  recalliug  to  our  minds, 
and  shadowing  forth  in  the  most  poetical  manner 
that  memorable  act  of  love  and  homage  rendered  at 
the  feet  of  the  Saviour.  Parmigiano  has  represented 
her,  in  a Madonna  picture,  as  standing  on  one  side, 
and  the  prophet  Isaiah  on  the  other.  Lord  Ashburton 
has  a fine  picture  by  Correggio,  in  which  we  have  the 
same  ideal  representation  : she  is  here  grouped  with 
St.  Peter,  St.  Margaret,  and  St.  Leonardo. 

There  are  two  classes  of  subjects  in  which  Mary 
Magdalene  is  richly  habited,  and  which  must  be  care- 
fully distinguished ; those  above  described,  in  which 
she  figures  as  patron  saint,  and  those  which  represent 
her  before  her  conversion,  as  the  votary  of  luxury  and 
pleasure.  In  the  same  manner  we  must  be  careful  to 
distinguish  those  figures  of  the  penitent  Magdalene 
which  are  wholly  devotional  in  character  and  intention, 
and  which  have  been  described  in  the  first  class,  from 
those  which  represent  her  in  the  act  of  doing  penance, 
and  which  are  rather  dramatic  and  sentimental  than 
devotional. 

/ 2 The  penance  of  the  Magdalene  is  a subject  which 
has  become,  like  the  penance  of  St.  Jerome,  a symbol 
of  Christian  penitence,  but  still  more  endeared  to  the 
popular  imagination  by  more  affecting  and  attractive 
associations,  and  even  more  eminently  picturesque,  — 
so  tempting  to  the  artists,  that  by  their  own  predilec- 
tion for  it  they  have  assisted  in  making  it  universal. 
In  the  display  of  luxuriant  female  forms,  shadowed 
(not  hidden)  by  redundant  fair  hair,  and  flung  in  all 


378  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

the  abandon  of  solitude,  amid  the  depth  of  leafy  re- 
cesses, or  relieved  by  the  dark  umbrageous  rocks ; in 
the  association  of  love  and  beauty  with  the  symbols  of 
death  and  sorrow  and  utter  humiliation  ; the  painters 
had  ample  scope,  ample  material,  for  the  exercise  of 
their  imagination  and  the  display  of  their  skill : and 
what  has  been  the  result  ? They  have  abused  these 
capabilities  even  to  license  ; they  have  exhausted  the 
resources  of  Art  in  the  attempt  to  vary  the  delineation ; 
and  yet  how  seldom  has  the  ideal  of  this  most  ex- 
quisite subjeet  been  — I will  not  say  realized  — but 
even  approached  ? We  have  Magdalenes  who  look 
as  if  they  never  could  have  sinned,  and  others  who 
look  as  if  they  never  could  have  repented ; we  have 
Venetian  Magdalenes  with  the  air  of  courtesans,  and 
Florentine  Magdalenes  with  the  air  of  Ariadncs  ; and 
Bolognese  Magdalenes  like  sentimental  Niobes ; and 
French  Magdalenes,  moitie  galantes,  moitie  devotes ; and 
Dutch  Magdalenes,  who  wring  their  hands  like  repent- 
ant washerwomen.  The  Magdalenes  of  Rubens  re- 
mind us  of  nothing  so  much  as  of  the  unfortunate 
Miss  Bailey  ” ; and  the  Magdalenes  of  Van  Dyck  are 
fine  ladies  who  have  turned  Methodists.  But  Mary 
Magdalene,  such  as  we  have  conceived  her,  mournful 
yet  hopeful,  — tender  yet  dignified,  — worn  with  grief 
and  fasting,  yet  radiant  with  the  glow  of  love  and  faith, 
and  clothed  with  the  beauty  of  holiness,  — is  an  ideal 
which  painting  has  not  yet  realized.  Is  it  beyond  the 
reach  of  Art  ? We  might  have  answered  this  question, 
had  Raphael  attempted  it ; — but  he  has  not.  Hia 
Magdalene  at  the  feet  of  Christ  is  yet  unforgiven, — 
the  forlorn  castaway,  not  the  devout  penitent. 

The  Magdalene  doing  penance  in  her  rocky  desert 
first  became  a popular  subject  in  the  sixteenth  century ; 
in  the  seventeenth  it  was  at  the  height  of  favor.  There 
are  two  distinct  versions  of  the  subject,  infinitely  varied 
as  to  detail  and  sentiment ; either  she  is  represented  as 
bewailing  her  sins,  or  as  reconciled  to  Heaven. 

In  the  former  treatment  she  lies  prostrate  on  the 


ST,  MARY  MAGDALENE, 


379 


earth,  or  she  is  standing  or  kneeling  at  the  entrance  of 
the  cave  (in  some  of  the  old  illuminated  missals  the 
upper  part  of  her  body  is  seen  emerging  from  a cave, 
or  rather  a hole  in  the  ground),  the  hands  clasped,  or 
extended  towards  heaven  ; the  eyes  streaming  with 
tears ; the  long  yellow  hair  floating  over  the  shoulders. 
The  crucifix,  the  skull,  and  sometimes  the  scourge,  are 
introduced  as  emblems  of  faith,  mortality,  and  penance ; 
weeping  angels  present  a crown  of  thorns. 

In  the  latter  treatment,  she  is  reading  or  meditating ; 
the  expression  is  serene  or  hopeful ; a book  lies  beside 
the  skull ; angels  present  the  palm,  or  scatter  flowers ; 
a vision  of  glory  is  seen  in  the  skies. 

The  alabaster  box  is  in  all  cases  the  indispensable 
attribute.  The  eyes  are  usually  raised,  if  not  in  grief, 
in  supplication  or  in  aspiration.  The  uplifted  eye 
as  well  as  the  “ loose  hair  ” became  a characteristic ; 
but  there  are  some  exceptions.  The  conception  of 
character  and  situation,  which  was  at  first  simple,  be- 
came more  and  more  picturesque,  and  at  length  theat- 
rical, — a mere  vehicle  for  sentiment  and  attitude. 

1 . The  earliest  example  I can  remember  of  the  Pen- 
itent Magdalene,  dramatically  treated,  remains  as  yet 
unsurpassed  ; — the  reading  Magdalene  of  Correggio, 
in  the  Dresden  Gallery.  This  lovely  creation  has  only 
one  fault,  — the  virginal  beauty  is  that  of  a Psyche  or 
a Seraph.  In  Oelenschlager’s  drama  of  Correggio,*' 
there  is  a beautiful  description  of  this  far-famed  pic- 
ture ; he  calls  it  Die  Gottinn  des  Waldes  Erdmmig- 
heit,**  — the  goddess  of  the  religious  solitude.  And  in 
truth,  if  we  could  imagine  Diana  reading  instead  of 
hunting,  she  might  have  looked  thus.  Oelenschlager 
has  made  poetical  use  of  the  tradition  that  Correggio 
painted  this  Magdalene  for  a poor  monk  who  was  his 
confessor  or  physician ; and  thus  he  makes  Silvestro 
comment  on  the  work  : — 

“ What  a fair  picture ! — 

This  dark  o’erhanging  shade,  the  long  fair  hair, 

The  delicate  white  skin,  the  azure  robe. 


380 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


The  full  luxuriant  life,  the  grim  death’s!  head, 

The  tender  womanhood,  and  the  great  book : — 

These  various  contrasts  have  you  cunningly 
Brought  into  sweetest  harmony.” 

But  truer,  at  least  nobler  in  sentiment,  is  the  Mag- 
dalene by  the  same  painter  (in  the  Manfrini  Palace, 
Venice),  of  the  same  size  and  similarly  draped  in  dark 
blue ; but  here  standing  at  the  entrance  of  her  cave. 
She  leans  her  elbow  on  the  book  wliich  lies  on  the 
rock,  and  appears  to  be  meditating  on  its  contents. 
The  head,  seen  in  front,  is  grand  and  earnest,  with  a 
mass  of  fair  hair,  a large  wide  brow,  and  deep,  deep 
eyes  full  of  mystery.  The  expression  of  power  in  this 
head  pleases  me  especially,  because  true  to  the  charac- 
ter, as  I conceive  it. 

“ Doch  ist  es  schou  von  einem  Weibe,  mein  ich, 

Einmal  gefallen  wieder  sich  zu  heben  ; 

Es  gibt  sehr  wen’ge  Manner  die  das  kdnneu  ! ” 

“ Yes  ! it  is  good  to  see  a hapless  woman, 

That  once  has  fallen,  redeem  herself ! In  truth, 

There  be  few  men,  methinks,  could  do  as  much.” 

Correggio,  Act  I.  Scene  I. 

I do  not  know  why  this  lovely  Manfrini  picture 
should  be  so  much  less  celebrated  than  the  Dresden 
Magdalene  : while  the  latter  has  been  multiplied  by 
copies  and  engravings,  I do  not  remember  a single 
print  after  the  Manfrini  Magdalene.  There  is  a bad, 
feeble  copy  in  the  Louvre ; * I know  no  other. 

2.  There  is  a celebrated  picture  by  Timoteo  della 
Vite,  in  the  Bologna  Gallery.  She  is  standing  before 
the  entrance  of  her  cavern,  arrayed  in  a crimson  man- 
tle ; her  long  hair  is  seen  beneath  descending  to  her 
feet ; the  hands  joined  in  prayer,  the  head  declined  on 
one  side,  and  the  whole  expression  that  of  girlish  inno- 
cence and  simplicity,  with  a touch  of  the  pathetic.  A 
mendicant,  not  a Magdalene,  is  the  idea  suggested ; 
and,  for  myself,  I confess  that  at  the  first  glance  I was 

* It  was  in  the  Standish  Gallery  belonging  to  Louis-Philippe, 
and  now  dispersed. 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE,  381 

reminded  of  the  little  Rcd-Riding-Hood,  and  could 
think  of  no  sin  that  could  have  been  attributed  to 
such  a face  and  figure,  beyond  the  breaking  of  a pot 
of  butter  : yet  the  picture  is  very  beautiful. 

3.  The  Magdalene  of  Titian  was  so  celebrated  in  his 
own  time,  that  he  painted  at  least  five  or  six  repeti- 
tions of  it,  and  copies  and  engravings  have  since  been 
multiplied.  The  eyes,  swimming  in  tears,  are  raised 
to  heaven ; the  long  dishevelled  hair  floats  over  her 
shoulders ; one  hand  is  pressed  on  her  bosom,  tho 
other  rests  on  the  skull ; the  forms  are  full  and  round, 
the  coloring  rich ; a book  and  a box  of  ointment  lie 
before  her  on  a fragment  of  rock.  She  is  sufficiently 
woeful,  but  seems  rather  to  regret  her  past  life  than  to 
repent  of  it,  nor  is  there  anything  in  the  expression 
which  can  secure  us  against  a relapse.  Titian  painted 
the  original  for  Charles  V.  His  idea  of  the  pose  was 
borrowed,  as  we  are  told,  from  an  antique  statue,  and 
his  model  was  a young  girl,  who  being  fatigued  with 
long  standing,  the  tears  ran  down  her  face,  and 
Titian  attained  the  desired  expression.”  (!)  His  idea 
therefore  of  St.  Mary  Magdalene  was  the  fusion  of  an 
antique  statue  and  a girl  taken  out  of  the  streets ; and 
with  all  its  beauties  as  a work  of  art  — and  very  beau- 
tiful it  is  — this  chef  d' oeuvre  of  Titian  is,  to  my  taste^ 
most  unsatisfactory. 

4.  Cigoli’s  Magdalene  is  seated  on  a rock,  veiled 
only  by  her  long  hair,  which  falls  over  the  whole  figure ; 
the  eyes,  still  wet  with  tears,  are  raised  to  heaven ; 
one  arm  is  round  a skull,  the  ri^ht  hand  rests  on  a 
book  which  is  on  her  knees. 

5.  The  Magdalene  of  Carlo  Cignani,  veiled  in  her 
dishevelled  hair,  and  wringing  her  hands,  is  also  most 
affecting  for  the  fervent  expression  of  sorrow;  both 
these  are  in  the  Florence  Gallery.* 

* There  is  a beautiful  half-length  female  figure,  attributed  to 
Correggio,  and  engraved  under  the  title  of  “ Gismunda  ” weeping 
over  the  heart  of  her  lover,  in  the  collection  of  the  Duke  of  New- 
castle. The  duplicate  in  the  Belvedere  Gallery  at  Vienna  is  there 
styled  a Magdalene,  and  attributed  correctly  to  Francesco  Furini. 


382  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

6.  Guido,  regarded  as  the  painter  of  Magdalenes 
par  excellence^  has  carried  this  mistake  yet  further ; he 
had  ever  the  classical  Niobe  in  his  mind,  and  his 
saintly  penitents,  with  all  their  exceeding  loveliness, 
appear  to  me  utterly  devoid  of  that  beauty  which  has 
been  called  “ the  beauty  of  holiness  ; the  reproachful 
grandeur  of  the  Niobe  is  diluted  into  voluptuous  feeble- 
ness ; the  tearful  face,  with  the  loose  golden  hair  and 
uplifted  eyes,  of  which  he  has  given  us  at  least  ten 
repetitions,  however  charming  as  art,  as  painting  are 
unsatisfactory  as  religious  representations.  I cannot 
except  even  the  beautiful  study  in  our  National  Gal- 
lery, nor  the  admired  full-length  in  the  Sciarra  Palace, 
at  Rome ; the  latter,  when  I saw  it  last,  appeared  to 
me  poor  and  mannered,  and  the  pale  coloring  not 

. merely  delicate,  but  vapid.  A head  of  Mary  Magda- 
lene reading,  apparently  a study  from  life,  is,  however, 
in  a grand  style.* 

7.  Murillo's  Magdalene,  in  the  Louvre,  kneeling, 
with  hands  crossed  on  her  bosom,  eyes  upraised  and 
parted  lips,  has  eager,  devout  hope  as  well  as  sorrow 
in  the  countenance.  8.  But  turn  to  the  Magdalene 
of  Alonzo  Cano,  which  hangs  near : drooping,  neg- 
ligent of  self ; the  very  hands  are  nerveless,  languid, 
dead,  t Nothing  but  woe,  guilt,  and  misery  are  in  the 
face  and  attitude  : she  has  not  yet  looked  into  the 
face  of  Christ,  nor  sat  at  his  feet,  nor  heard  from  his 
lips,  Woman,  thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee,"  nor  dared 
to  hope ; it  is  the  penitent  only  : the  whole  head  is 
faint,  and  the  whole  heart  sick.  9.  But  the  beautiful 
Magdalene  of  Annibal  Caracci  has  heard  the  words  of 
mercy  : she  has  memories  which  are  not  of  sin  only ; 
angelic  visions  have  already  come  to  her  in  that  wild 
solitude  : she  is  seated  at  the  foot  of  a tree ; she  leans 
her  cheek  on  her  right  hand,  the  other  rests  on  a skull ; 
she  is  in  deep  contemplation  ; but  her  thoughts  are  not 

* Lichtenstein  Gal. 

t These  two  pictures  were  sold  out  of  the  Louvre  with  King 
Louis-Philippe’s  pictures. 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE.  383 

of  death  : the  upward  ardent  look  is  full  of  hope,  and 
faith,  and  love.  The  fault  of  this  beautiful  little  pic- 
ture lies  in  the  sacrifice  of  the  truth  of  the  situation  to 
the  artistic  feeling  of  beauty,  — the  common  fault  of  the 
school ; the  forms  are  large,  round,  full,  untouched  by 
grief  and  penance. 

10.  Vandyck’s  Magdalenes  have  the  same  fault  as 
his  Madonnas ; they  are  not  feeble  nor  voluptuous,  but 
they  are  too  elegant  and  ladylike.  I remember,  for 
example,  a Deposition  by  Vandyck,  and  one  of  his 
finest  pictures,  in  which  Mary  Magdalene  kisses  the 
hand  of  the  Saviour  with  quite  the  air  of  a princess. 
The  most  beautiful  of  his  penitent  Magdalenes  is  the 
half-length  figure  with  the  face  in  profile,  bending  with 
clasped  hands  over  the  crucifix ; the  skull  and  knotted 
scourge  lie  on  a shelf  of  rock  behind ; underneath  is 
the  inscription,  FaUit  gratia  et  vana  est  pulchritudo ; 
midier  tunens  Dominion  ipsa  laudabltur.”  (Prov.  xxxi. 
30.)  11.  Rubens  has  given  us  thirteen  Magdalenes, 

more  or  less  coarse  ; in  one  picture  ^ she  is  tearing  her 
hair  like  a disappointed  virago  ; in  another,  the  ex- 
pression of  grief  is  overpowering,  but  it  is  that  of  a 
woman  in  the  house  of  correction.  From  this  sweep- 
ing condemnation  I must  make  one  exception  ; it  is 
the  picture  known  as  The  Four  Penitents.”  t In 
front  the  Magdalene  bows  down  her  head  on  her 
clasped  hands  with  such  an  expression  of  profound 
humility  as  Rubens  only,  when  painting  out  of  nature 
and  his  own  heart,  could  give.  Christ,  with  an  air 
of  tender  yet  sublime  compassion,  looks  down  upon 
her :  *  **  Thy  sins  be  forgiven  thee  ! ” Behind  Christ 
and  the  Magdalene  stand  Peter,  David,  and  Didymus, 
the  penitent  thief ; the  faces  of  these  three,  thrown  into 
shadow  to  relieve  the  two  principal  figures,  have  a self- 
abased,  mournful  expression.  I have  never  seen  any- 
thing from  the  hand  of  Rubens  at  once  so  pure  and  pa- 

* Turin  Gallery. 

t Munich  Gallery,  266.  There  is  an  inferior  repetition  in  the 
Royal  Gallery  at  Turin. 


384  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

thetic  in  sentiment  as  this  picture,  while  the  force  and 
truth  of  the  painting  are,  as  usual,  wonderful.  No  one 
should  judge  Rubens  who  has  not  studied  him  in  the 
Munich  Gallery. 

The  Historical  Subjects  from  the  life  of  Mary 
Magdalene  are  either  Scriptural  or  legendary  ; and  the 
character  of  the  Magdalene,  as  conceived  by  the  great- 
est painters,  is  more  distinctly  expressed  in  those  Scrip- 
tural scenes  in  which  she  is  an  important  figure,  than 
in  the  single  and  ideal  representations.  The  illumi- 
nated Gospels  of  the  ninth  century  furnish  the  oldest 
type  of  Mary,  the  penitent  and  the  sister  of  Lazarus, 
but  it  differs  from  the  modern  conception  of  the  Mag- 
dalene. She  is  in  such  subjects  a secondary  Scriptural 
personage,  one  of  the  accessaries  in  the  history  of 
Christ,  and  nothing  more  : no  attempt  was  made  to 
give  her  importance,  either  by  beauty,  or  dignity,  or 
prominence  of  place,  till  the  end  of  the  thirteenth  cen- 
tury. 

The  sacred  subjects  in  which  she  is  introduced  arc 
the  following  : — 

1 . Jesus  at  supper  with  Simon  the  Pharisee.  — And 
she  began  to  wash  his  feet  with  tears,  and  did  wipe 
them  with  the  hair  of  her  head,  and  kissed  his  feet,  and 
anointed  them  with  ointment.”  (Luke  vii.  30.) 

2.  Christ  is  in  the  house  of  Martha  and  Mary.  — 
And  she  sat  at  Jesus’  feet,  and  heard  his  words  ; but 

Martha  was  cumbered  with  much  serving.”  (Luke  x. 
39,  40.) 

3.  The  Raising  of  Lazarus.  ^ **  Lord,  if  thou  hadst 
been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died.”  (John  xi.  32.) 

4.  The  Crucifixion.  — Now  there  stood  by  the 
cross  Mary  Magdalene.”  (John  xix.  25  ; Matt,  xxvii. 
56.) 

5.  The  Deposition  from  the  Cross.  — **  And  Mary 
Magdalene,  and  the  mother  of  Jesus,  beheld  where  he 
was  laid.”  (Mark  xv.  47.) 

6.  The  Marys  at  the  Sepulchre.  — **  And  there  was 


ST,  MARY  MAGDALENE.  385 

Mary  Magdalene  and  the  other  Mary,  sitting  over 
against  the  sepulchre.”  (Matt,  xxvii.  61.) 

7.  Christ  appears  to  Mary  Magdalene  in  the  Gar- 
den, called  the  Noli  me  tangere.  — Touch  me  not,  for 
I am  not  vet  ascended  to  my  Father.”  (John  xx. 
17.) 

In  the  first,  second,  and  last  of  these  subjects,  the 
Magdalene  is  one  of  the  two  principal  figures,  and  ne- 
cessary to  the  action ; in  the  others  she  is  generally  intro- 
duced, but  in  some  instances  omittecl^^^nd  as  all  belong 
properly  to  the  life  of  Christ,  I shall  confine  myself  now 
to  a few  remarks  on  the  characteristic  treatment  of  the 
Magdalene  in  each. 

1.  The  supper  with  Simon  has  been  represented  in 
every  variety  of  style.  The  earliest  and  simplest  I 
can  call  to  mind  is  the  fresco  of  Taddeo  Gaddi  in  the 
Rinuccini  Chapel  at  Florence.  The  Magdalene  bends 
down  prostrate  on  the  feet  of  the  Saviour ; she  is  in  a 
red  dress,  and  her  long  yellow  hair  flows  down  her  back  ; 
the  seven  devils  by  which  she  was  possessed  are  seen 
above,  flying  out  of  the  roof  of  the  house  in  the  shape  of 
little  black  monsters.  Raphael,  when  treating  the  same 
subject,  thought  only  of  the  religious  significance  of  the 
action,  and  how  to  express  it  with  the  utmost  force 
and  the  utmost  simplicity.  There  are  few  figures,  — 
our  Saviour,  the  Pharisee,  four  apostles,  and  two  at- 
tendants : Mary  Magdalene,  in  front,  bends  over  the 
feet  of  Christ,  while  her  long  hair  half  conceals  her 
face  and  almost  sweeps  the  ground ; nothing  can  ex- 
ceed the  tenderness  and  humility  of  the  attitude  and  the 
benign  dignity  of  Christ.  As  an  example  of  the  most 
opposite  treatment,  let  us  turn  to  the  gorgeous  compo- 
sition of  Paul  Veronese ; we  have  a stately  banquet- 
room,  rich  architecture,  a crowd  of  about  thirty  figures  ; 
and  the  Magdalene  is  merely  a beautiful  female  with 
loose  robes,  dishevelled  tresses,  and  the  bosom  dis- 
played : this  gross  fault  of  sentiment  is  more  conspic- 
uous in  the  large  picture  in  the  Durazzo  Palace  at 
Genoa,  tlian  in  the  beautiful  finished  sketch  in  the  col- 

25 


386  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

lection  of  Mr.  Rogers.*  A fine  sketch  by  the  same 
painter,  but  quite  different,  is  at  Alton  Towers.  The 
composition  of  Rubens,  of  which  a very  fine  sketch  is 
in  the  Windsor  collection,  is  exceedingly  dramatic  : 
the  dignity  of  Christ  and  the  veneration  and  humility 
of  the  Magdalene  are  admirably  expressed  ; but  the 
disdainful  surprise  of  some  of  the  assistants,  and  the  open 
mockery  of  others,  — the  old  man  in  spectacles  peering 
over  to  convince  himself  of  the  truth,  — disturb  the 
solemnity  of  the  feeling  : and  this  fault  is  even  more 
apparent  in  the  composition  of  Philippe  de  Cham- 
pagne, where  a young  man  puts  up  his  finger  with  no 
equivocal  expression.  In  these  two  examples  the 
moment  chosen  is  not  “ Thy  sins  are  forgiven  theef 
but  the  scepticism  of  the  Pharisee  becomes  the  leading 
idea  : This  man,  if  he  were  a prophet,  would  have  known 
who  and  what  manner  of  woman  this  is.’* 

2.  Christ  in  the  house  of  Martha  and  Mary.  Of 
this  beautiful  subject  I have  never  seen  a satisfactory 
version ; in  the  fresco  by  Taddeo  Gaddi  in  the  Rinuc- 
cini  Chapel  the  subject  becomes  legendary  rather  than 
Scriptural.  Mary  Magdalene  is  seated  at  the  feet  of 
Christ  in  an  attitude  of  attention  ; Martha  seems  to 
expostulate  ; three  of  the  disciples  are  behind ; a little 
out  of  the  principal  group,  St.  Marcella,  also  with  a 
glory  round  her  head,  is  seen  cooking.  At  Hampton 
Court  there  is  a curious  picture  of  this  subject  by  Hans 
Vries,  which  is  an  elaborate  study  of  architecture  : the 
rich  decoration  of  the  interior  has  been  criticised  ; but, 
according  to  the  legend,  Martha  and  Mary  lived  in 
great  splendor ; and  there  is  no  impropriety  in  repre- 
senting their  dwelling  as  a palace,  but  a very  great 
impropriety  in  rendering  the  decorations  of  the  palace 
more  important  than  the  personages  of  the  scene.  In 
a picture  by  Old  Bassano,  Christ  is  seen  entering  the 

* The  great  picture  formerly  in  the  Purazzo  Palace  is  now  in 
the  Royal  Gallery  at  Turin.  It  is  wonderful  for  life  and  color,  and 
dramatic  feeling,  — a masterpiece  of  the  painter,  in  his  character- 
istic style. 


ST,  MARY  MAGDALENE, 


3^7 

house  ; Mary  Magdalene  goes  forward  to  meet  him ; 
Martha  points  to  the  table  where  Lazarus  sits  com- 
posedly cutting  a slice  of  sausage,  and  in  the  corner  St. 
Marcella  is  cooking  at  a fire.  In  a picture  by  Kubens 
the  treatment  is  similar.  The  holy  sisters  are  like  two 
Flemish  farm  servants,  and  Christ  — but  I dare  not 
proceed  : — in  both  these  instances,  the  coloring,  the 
expression,  the  painting  of  the  accessaries  — the  vege- 
tables and  fruit,  the  materials  and  implements  for 
cooking  a feast  — are  as  animated  and  true  to  nature, 
as  the  conception  of  the  whole  scene  is  trivial,  vulgar, 
and,  to  a just  taste,  intolerably  profane. 

One  of  the  most  modern  compositions  of  this  scene 
which  has  attracted  attention  is  that  of  Overbeck,  very 
simple  and  poetical,  but  deficient  in  individual  ex- 
pression. 

3.  The  raising  of  Lazarus  was  selected  by  the  early 
Christians  as  an  emblem,  both  of  the  general  resurrec- 
tion, and  the  resurrection  of  our  Saviour,  at  a time 
that  the  resurrection  of  the  Saviour  in  person  was  con- 
sidered a subject  much  too  solemn  and  mysterious  to 
be  dealt  with  by  the  imitative  arts.  In  its  primitive 
signification,  as  the  received  emblem  of  the  resurrec- 
tion of  the  dead,  we  find  this  subject  abounding  in  the 
catacombs,  and  on  the  sarcophagi  of  the  third  and 
fourth  centuries.  The  usual  manner  of  representation 
shows  the  dead  man  swathed  like  a mummy,  under  the 
porch  of  a temple  resembling  a tomb,  to  which  there  is 
an  ascent  by  a flight  of  steps.  Christ  stands  before 
him,  and  touches  him  with  a wand.  Sometimes  there 
are  two  figures  only,  but  in  general  Mary  Magdalene 
is  kneeling  by.  There  is  one  instance  only  in  which 
Christ  stands  surrounded  by  the  apostles,  and  the  two 
sisters  are  kneeling  at  his  feet : Lord,  hadst  thou 
been  here,  my  brother  had  not  died.^'  (Bottari,  Tab. 

XXX.) 

In  more  modem  Art,  this  subject  loses  its  mystic 
signification,  and  becomes  simply  a Scriptural  incident. 
It  is  treated  like  a scene  in  a drama,  and  the  painters 


388  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

have  done  their  utmost  to  vary  the  treatment.  But, 
however  varied  as  regards  the  style  of  conception  and 
the  number  of  personages,  Martha  and  Mary  are  al- 
ways present,  and,  in  general,  Mary  is  at  the  feet  of 
our  Saviour.  The  incident  is  of  course  one  of  the  most 
important  in  the  life  of  Christ,  and  is  never  omitted  in 
the  series,  nor  yet  in  the  miracles  of  our  Saviour.  But, 
from  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth  century,  it  forms 
one  of  the  scenes  of  the  story  of  Mary  Magdalene. 
The  fresco  of  Giovanni  da  Milano  at  Assisi  contains 
thirteen  figures,  and  the  two  sisters  kneeling  at  the 
feet  of  Christ  have  a grand  and  solemn  simplicity ; but 
Mary  is  not  here  in  any  respect  distinguished  from 
Martha,  and  both  are  attired  in  red. 

In  the  picture  in  our  National  Gallery,  the  kneeling 
figure  of  Mary  looking  up  in  the  face  of  Jesus,  with 
her  grand,  severe  beauty  and  earnest  expression,  is 
magnificent : but  here,  again,  Mary  of  Bethany  is 
not  Mary  Magdalene,  nor  the  woman  ‘^who  was  a 
sinner  ” ; and  I doubt  whether  Michael  Angelo  in- 
tended to  represent  her  as  such.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  Caracci,  Rubens,  and  the  later  painters  are  careful 
to  point  out  the  supposed  identity,  by  the  long  fair 
hair,  exposed  and  dishevelled,  the  superior  beauty  and 
the  superior  prominence  and  importance  of  the  figure, 
while  Martha  stands  by,  veiled,  and  as  a secondary 
personage. 

4.  In  the  Crucifixion,  where  more  than  the  three 
figures  (the  Redeemer,  the  Virgin,  and  St.  John)  are 
introduced,  the  Magdalene  is  almost  always  at  the  foot 
of  the  cross,  and  it  is  said  that  Giotto  gave  the  first 
example.  Sometimes  she  is  embracing  the  cross,  and 
looking  up  with  all  the  abandonment  of  despairing 
grief,  which  is  more  picturesque  than  true  in  senti- 
ment ; finer  in  feeling  is  the  expression  of  serene  hope 
tempering  the  grief.  In  Rubens’s  famous  Crucifix- 
ion ” at  Antwerp,  she  has  her  arms  round  the  cross, 
and  is  gazing  at  the  executioner  with  a look  of  horror  : 
this  is  very  dramatic  and  striking,  but  the  attention  of 


ST.  MART  MAGDALENE. 


389 

the  penitent  ought  to  be  fixed  on  the  dying  Saviour  to 
the  exclusion  of  every  other  thought  or  object.  In 
Vandyck^s  Crucifixion,”  the  face  of  the  Magdalene 
seen  in  front  is  exquisite  for  its  pathetic  beauty.  Some- 
times the  Virgin  is  fainting  in  her  arms.  The  box  of 
ointment  is  frequently  placed  near,  to  distinguish  her 
from  the  other  Marys  present. 

5.  In  the  Descent  or  Deposition  from  the  Cross,  and 
in  the  Entombment,  Mary  Magdalene  is  generally  con- 
spicuous. She  is  often  supporting  the  feet  or  one  of 
the  hands  of  the  Saviour ; or  she  stands  by  weeping ; 
or  she  sustains  the  Virgin ; or  (which  is  very  usual  in 
the  earlier  pictures)  she  is  seen  lamenting  aloud,  with 
her  long  tresses  disordered,  and  her  arms  outspread  in 
an  ecstasy  of  grief  and  passion  ; or  she  bends  down  to 
embrace  the  feet  of  the  Saviour,  or  to  kiss  his  hand  ; 
or  contemplates  with  a mournful  look  one  of  the  nails, 
or  the  crown  of  thorns,  which  she  holds  in  her  hand,.^ 

In  the  Pieta  of  Fra  Bartolomeo,  in  the  Pitti  Palace, 
the  prostrate  abandonment  in  the  figure  of  the  Magda- 
lene pressing  the  feet  of  Christ  to  her  bosom,  is  full  of 
pathetic  expression ; in  the  same  gallery  is  the  Pieta 
by  Andrea  del  Sarto,  where  the  Magdalene,  kneeling, 
wrings  her  hands  in  mute  sorrow.  But  in  this,  as  in 
other  instances,  Raphael  has  shown  himself  supreme  : 
there  is  a wonderful  little  drawing  by  him,  in  which 
Nicodemus  and  others  sustain  the  body  of  the  Saviour, 
while  Mary  Magdalene  lies  prostrate  bending  her  head 
over  his  feet,  which  she  embraces ; the  face  is  wholly 
concealed  by  the  flowing  hair,  but  never  was  the  ex- 
pression of  overwhelming  love  and  sorrow  conveyed 
with  such  artless  truth. 

6.  The  Marys  at  the  Sepulchre.  The  women  who 
carry  the  spices  and  perfumes  to  the  tomb  of  Jesus  are 
called,  in  Greek  Art,  the  Myrrhophores,  or  myrrh-bearers : 
with  us  there  are  usually  three,  — Mary  Magdalene, 
Mary  the  mother  of  James  and  John,  and  Mary  Sa- 
lome. In  Matthew,  two  women  are  mentioned ; in 
Mark,  three ; in  Luke,  the  number  is  indefinite ; and 


390  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

in  John,  only  one  is  mentioned,  Mary  Magdalene. 
There  is  scarcely  a more  beautiful  subject  in  the  whole 
circle  of  Scripture  story,  than  this  of  the  three  desolate, 
affectionate  'v^^omen  standing  before  the  tomb  in  the 
gray  dawn,  while  the  majestic  angels  arc  seen  guarding 
the  hallowed  spot.  One  of  the  earliest  examples  is  the 
composition  of  Duccio : the  rules  of  perspective  were 
then  unknown,  — but  what  a beautiful  simplicity  in 
the  group  of  women ! how  fine  the  seated  angel ! — 
The  angel  of  the  Lord  descended  from  heaven,  and 
came  and  rolled  back  the  stone  from  the  door  and  sat 
upon  it.^^  I have  seen  one  instance,  and  only  one,  in 
which  the  angel  is  in  the  act  of  descending ; in  gen- 
eral, the  version  according  to  St.  John  is  followed,  and 
the  two  men  in  shining  garments  ” are  seated  within 
the  tomb.  There  is  a famous  engraving,  after  a de- 
sign by  Michael  Angelo,  called  “ The  three  Marys 
going  to  the  Sepulchre  **  : it  represents  three  old 
women  veiled,  and  with  their  backs  turned,  — very 
awful ; but  they  might  as  well  be  called  the  three 
Fates,  or  the  three  Witches,  as  the  three  Marys. 
The  subject  has  never  been  more  happily  treated 
than  by  Philip  Veit,  a modern  German  artist,  in  a 
print  which  has  become  popular ; he  has  followed  the 
version  of  Matthew  : As  it  began  to  dawn,  came 
Mary  Magdalene  and  the  other  Mary  to  see  the 
sepulchre.^^  The  attitude  of  motionless  sorrow ; the 
anxious,  expectant  looks,  fixed  on  the  tomb;  the  deep, 
shadowy  stillness  ; the  morning  light  just  breaking  in 
the  distance,  are  very  truly  and  feelingly  expressed. 

7.  The  <^Noli  me  tangere^^  is  the  subject  of  many 
pictures  ; they  do  not  vary  in  the  simplicity  of  the 
motif,  which  is  fixed  by  tradition,  and  admits  but  of 
two  persons.  The  composition  of  Duccio,  as  one  of 
the  series  of  the  Passion  of  Christ,  is  extremely  grand ; 
and  the  figure  of  Mary,  leaning  forward  as  she  kneels, 
with  outstretched  hands,  full  of  expression.  The  old 
fresco  of  Taddeo  Gaddi,  in  the  Rinuccini  Chapel,*  is 


* Santa  Croce,  Florence. 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE. 


391 


also  exquisite.  Two  of  the  finest  in  conception  and 
treatment  are,  notwithstanding,  in  striking  contrast  to 
each  other.  One  is  the  Titian  in  the  collection  of  Mr. 
Eogcrs  : * the  Magdalene,  kneeling,  bends  forward 
with  eager  expression,  and  one  hand  extended  to 
touch  him  : the  Saviour,  drawing  his  linen  garment 
round  him,  shrinks  back  from  her  touch,  — yet  with 
the  softest  expression  of  pity.  Besides  the  beauty  and 
truth  of  the  expression,  this  picture  is  transcendent  as 
a piece  of  color  and  effect ; while  the  rich  landscape 
and  the  approach  of  morning  over  the  blue  distance 
are  conceived  with  a sublime  simplicity.  Not  less  a 
miracle  of  Art,  not  less  poetical,  but  in  a far  different 
style,  is  the  Rembrandt  in  the  Queen’s  Gallery : at  the 
entrance  of  the  • sepulchre  the  Saviour  is  seen  in  the 
habiliments  of  a gardener,  and  Mary  Magdalene  at  his 
feet,  adoring.  This  picture  exhibits,  in  a striking  de- 
gree, all  the  wild  originality  and  peculiar  feeling  of 
Rembrandt : the  forms  and  characters  are  common ; 
but  the  deep  shadow  of  the  cavern  tomb,  the  dimly- 
seen  supernatural  beings  within  it,  the  breaking  of  the 
dawn  over  the  distant  city,  are  awfully  sublime,  and 
worthy  of  the  mysterious  scene.  Barroccio’s  great 
altar-piece,  which  came  to  England  with  the  Duke 
of  Lucca’s  pictures,  once  so  famous,  and  well  known 
from  the  fine  engraving  of  Raphael  Morghen,  is  poor 
compared  with  any  of  these  : Christ  is  effeminate  and 
commonplace,  — Mary  Magdalene  all  in  a flutter. 

I now  leave  these  Scriptural  incidents,  to  be  more 
full}^  considered  hereafter,  and  proceed  to  the  fourth 
class  of  subjects  pertaining  to  the  life  of  the  Magda- 
lene, — those  which  are  taken  from  the  wild  Proven 9al 
legends  of  the  thirteenth  and  fourteenth  centuries. 

1.  ‘‘La  Danse  de  la  Madeleine”  is  the  title  given 
to  a very  rare  and  beautiful  print  by  Lucas  v.  Leyden. 
It  represents  Mary  Magdalene  abandoned  to  the  pleas- 

This  beautiful  and  valuable  picture  has  been  bequeathed  by 
the  poet  to  the  National  Gallery. 


392  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

ures  of  the  world.  The  scene  is  a smiling  and  varied 
landscape ; in  the  centre  Mary  Magdalene,  with  the 
anticipativc  glory  round  her  head,  is  seen  dancing 
along  to  the  sound  of  a flute  and  tabor,  while  a man 
in  a rich  dress  leads  her  by  the  hand  : several  groups 
of  men  and  women  are  diverting  themselves  in  the 
foreground  ; in  the  background,  Mary  Magdalene, 
with  a number  of  gay  companions,  is  chasing  the 
stag ; she  is  mounted  on  horseback,  and  has  again 
the  glory  round  her  head  : far  in  the  distance  she  is 
seen  borne  upwards  by  the  angels.  This  singular  and 
suggestive  composition  is  dated  1519.  There  is  a fine 
impression  in  the  British  Museum.^./ 

2.  Mary  Magdalene  rebuked  by  her  sister  Martha 
for  her  vanity  and  luxury.’^  I believe  I am  the  first 
to  suggest  that  the  famous  picture  in  the  Sciarra  Pal- 
ace, by  Leonardo  da  Vinci,  known  as  Modesty  and 
Vanity,^^  is  a version  of  this  subject.  When  I saw  it, 
this  idea  was  suggested,  and  no  other  filled  my  mind. 
The  subject  is  one  often  treated,  and  here  treated  in 
Leonardo’s  peculiar  manner.  The  attitude  of  the 
veiled  figure  is  distinctly  that  of  remonstrance  and 
rebuke ; the  other,  decked  and  smiling,  looks  out  of 
the  picture,  holding  flowers  in  her  hand,  as  yet  uncon- 
vinced, unconverted  : the  vase  of  ointment  stands  near 
her.  In  other  pictures  there  is  no  doubt  as  to  the  sig- 
nificance of  the  subject ; it  has  been  gracefully  treated 
in  a picture  by  Giovanni  Lopicino,  now  in  the  gallery 
of  the  Belvedere  at  Vienna.  She  is  seated  at  her  toi- 
let ; her  maid  is  binding  her  luxuriant  hair ; Martha, 
standing  by,  appears  to  be  remonstrating  with  great 
fervor.  There  is  a pretty  picture  by  Elizabetta  Sirani 
of  the  same  scene,  similarly  treated. 

3.  “ Mary  Magdalene  conducted  by  her  sister  Mar- 
tha to  the  feet  of  Jesus.”  Of  this  most  beautiful  sub- 
ject, I know  but  one  composition  of  distinguished 
merit.  It  is  by  Baphael,  and  exists  only  in  the  draw- 
ing, and  the  rare  engraving  by  Marc  Antonio.  Christ 
sits  within  the  porch  of  the  Temple,  teaching  four  of 


ST.  3fARY  MAGDALENE. 


393 


his  disciples  who  staud  near  him.  Martha  and  Mary 
are  seen  ascending  the  steps  which  lead  to  the  portico  : 
Martha,  who  is  veiled,  seems  to  encourage  her  sister, 
who  looks  down.  I observe  that  Passavant  and  others 
are  uncertain  as  to  the  subject  of  this  charming  design : 
it  has  been  styled  The  Virgin  Mary  presenting  the 
Magdalene  to  Christ  ” ; but  with  any  one  who  has 
carefully  considered  the  legend,  there  can  be  no  doubt 
as  to  the  intention  of  the  artist.  “ Mary  Magdalene 
listening  to  the  preaching  of  our  Saviour,  with  Martha 
seated  by  her  side,''  is  one  of  the  subjects  in  the  series 
by  Gaudenzio  Ferrari  at  Vercelli : it  is  partly  destroyed. 
We  have  the  same  subject  by  F.  Zucchero ; Mary,  in 
a rich  dress,  is  kneeling  at  the  feet  of  the  Saviour, 
who  is  seated  under  a portico  ; Martha,  veiled,  stands 
near  her,  and  there  are  numerous  spectators  and  acces- 
saries. 

4.  “ The  Magdalene  renouncing  the  Vanities  of  the 
World,"  is  also  a very  attractive  subject.  In  a picture 
by  Guido  she  has  partly  divested  herself  of  her  rich 
ornaments,  and  is  taking  some  pearls  from  her  hair, 
while  she  looks  up  to  heaven  with  tearful  eyes.  In  a 
sketch  by  Rubens  in  the  Dulwich  Gallery,  she  is  seated 
in  a forest  solitude,  still  arrayed  in  her  worldly  finery, 
blue  satin,  pearls,  «&c.,  and  wringing  her  hands  with 
an  expression  of  the  bitterest  grief.  The  treatment, 
as  usual  with  him,  is  coarse,  but  effective.  In  his 
large  picture  at  Vienna,  with  the  figures  life-size, 
Mary  is  spurning  with  her  feet  a casket  of  jewels,  and 
throwing  herself  back  with  her  hands  clasped  in  an 
agony  of  penitence  : while  Martha  sits  behind,  gazing 
on  her  with  an  expression  so  demurely  triumphant  as 
to  be  almost  comic.  There  is  an  exquisite  little  pic- 
ture by  Gerard  Douw  in  the  Berlin  Gallery,  in  which 
the  Magdalene,  in  a magnificent  robe  of  crimson  and 
sables,  is  looking  up  to  heaven  with  an  expression  of 
sorrow  and  penitence ; the  table  before  her  is  covered 
with  gold  and  jewels.  “ Mary  Magdalene  renouncing 
the  World,"  by  Le  Brun,  is  a famous  picture,  now  in 


394 


SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 


the  Louvre.  She  looks  up  to  heaven  with  tearful  eyes, 
and  is  in  the  act  of  tearing  off  a rich  mantle  ; a casket 
of  jewels  lies  overturned  at  her  feet.  This  picture  is 
said  to  be  the  portrait  of  Madame  de  la  Valliere,  by 
whose  order  it  was  painted  for  the  church  of  the  Car- 
melites at  Paris,  where  she  had  taken  refuge  from  the 
court  and  from  the  world.  It  has  that  sort  of  theat- 
rical grace  and  grandeur,  that  mannered  mediocrity, 
characteristic  of  the  painter  and  the  time.*  There  is 
a Magdalene  in  the  Gallery  at  Munich  by  Le  Brun, 
which  is  to  me  far  preferable  ; and  this,  and  not  the 
Paris  one,  I presume  to  be  the  portrait  of  the  Duchesse 
de  la  Valliere.  In  a picture  by  Pranceschini  she  has 
flung  off  her  worldly  ornaments,  which  lie  scattered 
on  the  ground,  and  holds  a scourge  in  her  hand,  with 
which  she  appears  to  have  castigated  herself : she  sinks 
in  the  arms  of  one  of  her  attendant  maidens,  while 
Martha,  standing  by,  seems  to  speak  of  peace,  and 
points  towards  heaven  : the  figures  are  life-size.t  None 
of  these  pictures,  with  the  exception  of  the  precious 
Leonardo  in  the  Sciarra  Palace,  have  any  remarkable 
merit  as  pictures.  The  scenes  between  Mary  and  Mar- 
tha are  capable  of  the  most  dramatic  and  effective 
illustration,  but  have  never  yet  been  worthily  treated. 

5.  The  embarkation  of  the  Magdalene  in  Pales- 
tine, with  Martha,  Lazarus,  and  the  others,  cast  forth 
by  their  enemies  in  a vessel  without  sails  or  rudder, 
but  miraculously  conducted  by  an  angel,^^  is  another 
subject  of  which  I have  seen  no  adequate  representa- 
tion. There  is  a mediocre  picture  by  Curradi  in  the 
Florence  Gallery.  Among  the  beautiful  frescos  of 
Gaudenzio  Ferrari  in  the  Church  of  St.  Cristoforo  at 
Vercelli,  is  the  voyage  of  the  Magdalene  and  her  com- 
panions, and  their  disembarkation  at  Marseilles. 

6.  Mary  Magdalene  preaching  to  the  inhabitants 
of  Marseilles,’^  has  been  several  times  represented  in 

* The  print  by  Edelinck  is  considered  as  the  masterpiece  of 
that  celebrated  engraver. 

t Dresden  Gal. 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE. 


395 


the  sculpture  and  stained  glass  of  the  old  cathedrals  in 
the  South  of  France.  In  the  Hotel  de  Cluny  there  is 
a curious  old  picture  in  distemper  attributed  to  King 
Rene  of  Provence,  the  father  of  our  Margaret  of  Anjou, 
and  famous  for  his  skill  as  a limner.  Mary  Magdalene 
is  standing  on  some  steps,  arrayed  in  loose  white  dra- 
pery, and  a veil  over  her  head.  She  is  addressing 
earnestly  a crowd  of  listeners,  and  among  them  we  see 
King  Rene  and  his  wife  Jeanne  de  Laval  on  thrones 
with  crown  and  sceptre  : — a trifling  anachronism  of 
about  1400  years,  but  it  may  be  taken  in  a poetical 
and  allegorical  sense.  The  port  of  Marseilles  is  seen 
in  the  background.  The  same  subject  has  been  classi- 
cally treated  in  a series  of  bas-reliefs  in  the  porch  of 
the  Certosa  at  Pavia : there  is  a mistake,  however,  in 
exhibiting  her  as  half  naked,  clothed  only  in  a skin, 
and  her  long  hair  flowing  down  over  her  person ; for 
she  was  at  this  time  the  missionary  saint,  and  not  yet 
the  penitent  of  the  desert. 

7.  Mary  Magdalene  borne  by  angels  above  the  sum- 
mit of  Mount  Pilon,'^  called  also  “ The  Assumption  of 
the  Magdalene, is  a charming  subject  when  treated  in 
the  right  spirit.  Unfortunately,  we  are  oftener  reminded 
of  a Pandora,  sustained  by  a group  of  Cupids,  or  a Venus 
rising  out  of  the  sea,  than  of  the  ecstatic  trance  of  the 
reconciled  penitent.  It  was  very  early  a popular  theme. 
In  the  treatment  we  find  little  variety.  She  is  seen 
carried  upwards  very  slightly  draped,  and  often  with 
no  other  veil  than  her  redundant  hair,  flowing  over  her 
whole  person.  She  is  in  the  arms  of  four,  five,  or  six 
angels.  Sometimes  one  of  the  angels  bears  the  ala- 
baster box  of  ointment ; far  below  is  a wild,  mountain- 
ous landscape,  with  a hermit  looking  up  at  the  vision, 
as  it  is  related  in  the  legend. 

In  a hymn  to  the  Magdalene,  by  an  old  Proven9al 
poet  (Balthazar  de  la  Burle),  there  is  a passage  de- 
scribing her  ascent  in  the  arms  of  angels,  which,  from 
its  vivid,  graphic  naivete,  is  worthy  of  being  placed 
under  this  print  of  Albert  Diirer : — 


396  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

“ Ravengat  lou  jour  los  anges  la  portavan 
Ben  plus  hault  que  lou  roc. 

Jamais  per  mauvais  temps  que  fessa  ne  freddura, 

Autre  abit  non  avia  que  la  sien  cabellura, 

Que  como  un  mantel  d’or  tant  eram  bels  e blonds 
La  couvria  de  la  testa  fin  al  bas  des  talons.” 

The  fresco  by  Giulio  Romano,  in  which  she  is  re- 
clining amid  clouds,  and  sustained  by  six  angels,  while 
her  head  is  raised  and  her  arms  extended  with  the 
most  ecstatic  expression,  was  cut  from  the  walls  of  a 
chapel  in  the  Trinita  di  Monte,  at  Rome,  and  is  now 
in  our  National  Gallery. 

One  of  the  finest  pictures  ever  painted  by  Ribera  is 
the  Assumption  of  the  Magdalene  in  the  Louvre,  both 
for  beauty  of  expression  and  color.  She  is  here  draped, 
and  her  drapery  well  managed.  The  Spanish  painters 
never  fell  into  the  mistake  of  the  Italians ; they  give 
us  no  Magdalenes  which  recall  the  idea  of  a Venus 
Meretrix.  The  rules  of  the  Inquisition  were  here  ab- 
solute, and  held  the  painters  in  wholesome  check,  ren- 
dering such  irreligious  innovations  inadmissible  and 
unknown.  In  the  Turin  Gallery  there  is  an  Assump- 
tion of  the  Magdalene  by  Dennis  Calvert,  admirably 
painted,  in  which  she  is  carried  up  by  four  Apollo-like 
angels,  who,  with  their  outstretched  arms,  form  a sort 
of  throne  on  which  she  is  seated  : she  is  herself  most 
lovely,  draped  in  the  thin  undress  of  a Venus ; and 
the  whole  composition,  at  first  view,  brought  to  my 
fancy  the  idea  of  a Venus  rising  from  the  sea,  throned 
in  her  shell  and  sustained  by  nymphs  and  cupids. 

In  general,  the  early  painters,  Albert  Durer,  Viva- 
rini,  Lorenzo  di  Credi,  Benedetto  Montagna,  represent 
her  in  an  upright  position,  with  hands  folded  in  prayer, 
or  crossed  over  her  bosom,  and  thus  soaring  upwards 
without  effort  of  will  or  apparent  consciousness ; 
while  the  painters  of  the  seventeenth  century  (with 
whom  this  was  a favorite  subject)  strained  their  imagi- 
nation to  render  the  form  and  attitude  voluptuously 
graceful,  and  to  vary  the  action  of  the  attendant  angels, 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE. 


397 


until,  in  one  or  two  instances,  the  representation  be- 
came at  once  absurdly  prosaic  and  offensively  theat- 
rical. F.  Zucchero,  Cambiasi,  Lanfranco,  Carlo  Ma- 
ratti,  have  all  given  us  versions  of  this  subject  in  a 
florid,  mannered  style. 

Over  the  high  altar  of  the  Madeleine,  at  Paris,  is 
the  same  subject  in  a marble  group,  by  Marochetti, 
rather  above  life-size.  Two  angels  bear  her  up,  while 
on  each  side  an  archangel  kneels  in  adoration. 

8.  The  Last  Communion  of  the  Magdalene  is  repre- 
resented  in  two  different  ways,  according  to  the  two 
different  versions  of  the  story  : in  the  first,  she  expires 
in  her  cave,  and  angels  administer  the  last  sacraments ; 
one  holds  a taper,  another  presents  the  cup,  a third  the 
wafer.  This  has  been  painted  by  Domenichino.  In 
the  other  version  she  receives  the  sacrament  from  the 
hand  of  St.  Maximin,  who  w'ears  the  episcopal  robes, 
and  the  Magdalene  kneels  before  him,  half-naked,  ema- 
ciated, and  sustained  by  angels  : the  scene  is  the  porch 
of  a church. 

9.  The  Magdalene  dying  in  the  Wilderness,  extend- 
ed on  the  bare  earth,  and  pressing  the  crucifix  to  her 
bosom,  is  a frequent  subject  in  the  seventeenth  century. 
One  of  the  finest  examples  is  the  picture  of  Rustichino 
in  the  Florence  Gallery.  The  well-known  “ Dying 
Magdalene  ’’  of  Canova  has  the  same  merits  and  de- 
fects as  his  Penitent  Magdalene. 

I saw  a picture  at  Bologna  by  Tiarini,  of  which  the 
conception  appeared  to  me  very  striking  and  poetical. 
The  Virgin,  “ La  Madre  Addolorata,'’^  is  seated,  and 
holds  in  her  hand  the  crown  of  thorns,  which  she  con- 
templates with  a mournful  expression;  at  a little  dis- 
tance kneels  Mary  Magdalene  with  long,  dishevelled 
hair,  in  all  the  abandonment  of  grief.  St.  John  stands 
behind,  with  his  hands  clasped,  and  his  eyes  raised  to 
heaven. 

When  the  Magdalene  is  introduced  into  pictures  of 
the  ‘‘  Incredulity  of  Thomas,^^  it  is  in  allusion  to  a fa- 
mous parallel  in  one  of  the  Fathers,  in  which  it  is 


398  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART. 

insisted,  **  that  the  faith  of  Mary  Magdalene,  and  the 
doubts  of  Thomas,  were  equally  serviceable  to  the 
cause  of  Christ.” 

Among  the  many  miracles  imputed  to  the  Magda- 
lene, one  only  has  become  popular  as  a subject  of  Art. 
Besides  being  extremely  naive  and  poetical,  it  is  ex- 
tremely curious  as  illustrating  the  manners  of  the  time. 
It  was  probably  fabricated  in  the  fourteenth  century, 
and  intended  as  a kind  of  parable,  to  show  that  those 
who  trusted  in  Mary  Magdalene,  and  invoked  her  aid, 
might  in  all  cases  reckon  upon  her  powerful  interces- 
sion. It  is  thus  related  : — 

Soon  after  Mary  Magdalene  landed  in  Provence,  a 
certain  prince  of  that  country  arrived  in  the  city  of 
Marseilles  with  his  wife,  for  the  purpose  of  sacrificing 
to  the  gods  ; but  they  were  dissuaded  from  doing  so 
by  the  preaching  of  Mary  Magdalene  : and  the  prince 
one  day  said  to  the  saint,  ‘ We  greatly  desire  to  have  a 
son.  Canst  thou  obtain  for  us  that  grace  from  the 
God  whom  thou  preachest  ? ^ And  the  Magdalene  re- 
plied, * If  thy  prayer  be  granted,  wilt  thou  then  believe  1 * 
And  he  answered,  ‘ Yes,  I will  believe.'  But  shortly 
afterwards,  as  he  still  doubted,  he  resolved  to  sail  to 
Jerusalem  to  visit  St.  Peter,  and  to  find  out  whether 
his  preaching  agreed  with  that  of  Mary  Magdalene. 
His  wife  resolved  to  accompany  him  : but  the  husband 
said,  ‘ How  shall  that  be  possible,  seeing  that  thou  art 
with  child,  and  the  dangers  of  the  sea  are  very  great '? ' 
But  she  insisted,  and,  throwing  herself  at  his  feet,  she 
obtained  her  desire.  Then,  having  laden  a vessel  with 
all  that  was  necessary,  they  set  sail ; and  when  a day 
and  a night  were  come  and  gone,  there  arose  a terrible 
storm.  The  poor  woman  was  seized  prematurely  with 
the  pains  of  childbirth  ; in  the  midst  of  the  tempest  she 
brought  forth  her  first-born  son,  and  then  died.  The 
miserable  father,  seeing  his  wife  dead,  and  his  child  de- 
prived of  its  natural  solace,  and  crying  for  food,  wrung 
his  hands  in  despair,  and  knew  not  what  to  do.  And 


ST.  MAEY  3IAGDALENE. 


399 


the  sailors  said,  * Let  us  throw  this  dead  body  into  the 
sea,  for  as  long  as  it  remains  on  board  the  tempest  will 
not  abate/  But  the  prince,  by  his  entreaties,  and  by 
giving  them  money,  restrained  them  for  a while.  Just 
then,  for  so  it  pleased  God,  they  arrived  at  a rocky 
island,  and  the  prince  laid  the  body  of  his  wife  on  the 
shore,  and,  taking  the  infant  in  his  arms,  he  wept 
greatly,  and  said,  ^ O Mary  Magdalene ! to  my  grief 
and  sorrow  didst  thou  come  to  Marseilles  ! Why 
didst  thou  ask  thy  God  to  give  me  a son  only  that  I 
might  lose  both  son  and  wife  together  ? O Mary 
Magdalene ! have  pity  on  my  grief,  and,  if  thy  prayers 
may  avail,  save  at  least  the  life  of  my  cliild  ! ^ Then 
he  laid  down  the  infant  on  the  bosom  of  the  mother, 
and  covered  them  both  with  his  cloak,  and  went  on  his 
way,  weeping.  And  when  the  prince  and  his  attend- 
ants had  arrived  at  Jerusalem,  St.  Peter  showed  him 
all  the  places  where  our  Saviour  had  performed  his 
miracles,  and  the  hill  on  which  he  had  been  crucified, 
and  the  spot  from  whence  he  had  ascended  into  heaven. 
Having  been  instructed  in  the  faith  by  St.  Peter,  at 
the  end  of  two  years  the  prince  embarked  to  return  to 
his  own  country,  and  passing  near  to  the  island  in 
which  he  had  left  his  wife,  he  landed  in  order  to  weep 
upon  her  grave. 

Now,  wonderful  to  relate  ! — his  infant  child  had 
been  preserved  alive  by  the  prayers  of  tlie  blessed  Mary 
Magdalene  ; and  he  was  accustomed  to  run  about  on 
the  sands  of  the  sea-shore,  to  gather  up  pebbles  and 
shells  ; and  when  the  child,  who  had  never  beheld  a 
man,  perceived  the  strangers,  he  was  afraid,  and  ran 
and  hid  himself  under  the  cloak  which  covered  his  dead 
mother ; and  the  father,  and  all  who  were  with  him, 
were  filled  with  astonishment ; but  their  surprise  was 
still  greater  when  the  woman  opened  her  eyes,  and 
stretched  out  her  arms  to  her  husband.  Then  they 
offered  up  thanks,  and  all  returned  together  to  Mar- 
seilles, where  they  fell  at  the  feet  of  Mary  Magda- 
lene, and  received  baptism.  From  that  time  forth,  all 


400  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 


the  people  of  Marseilles  and  the  surrounding  country 
became  Christians/^ 

The  picturesque  capabilities  of  this  extravagant  but 
beautiful  legend  will  immediately  suggest  themselves  to 
the  fancy  : — the  wild  sea-shore,  — the  lovely  naked  in- 
fant wandering  on  the  beach,  — the  mother,  slumbering 
the  sleep  of  death,  covered  with  the  mysterious  dra- 
pery, — the  arrival  of  the  mariners,  — what  opportunity 
for  scenery  and  grouping,  color  and  expression  ! It 
was  popular  in  the  Giotto  school,  which  arose  and 
flourished  just  about  the  period  when  the  enthusiasm 
for  Mary  Magdalene  was  at  its  height ; but  later  paint- 
ers have  avoided  it,  or,  rather,  it  was  not  sufficiently 
accredited  for  a Church  legend ; and  I have  met  with 
no  example  later  than  the  end  of  the  fourteenth  cen- 
tury. 

The  old  fresco  of  Taddeo  Gaddi  in  the  S.  Croce  at 
Florence  will  give  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which 
the  subject  was  usually  treated.  In  the  foreground  is  a 
space  representing  an  island ; water  flowing  round  it, 
the  water  being  indicated  by  many  strange  fishes.  On 
the  island  a woman  lies  extended  with  her  hands 
crossed  upon  her  bosom  ; an  infant  lifts  up  the  mantle, 
and  seems  to  show  her  to  a man  bending  over  her  ; the 
father  on  his  knees,  with  hands  joined,  looks  devoutly 
up  to  heaven ; four  others  stand  behind  expressing  as- 
tonishment or  fixed  attention.  In  the  distance  is  a 
ship,  in  which  sits  a man  with  a long  white  beard,  in 
red  drapery  ; beside  him  another  in  dark  drapery  : be- 
yond is  a view  of  a port  with  a lighthouse,  intended,  I 
presume,  for  Marseilles.  The  story  is  here  told  in  a 
sort  of  Chinese  manner  as  regards  the  drawing,  com- 
position, and  perspective ; but  the  figures  and  heads 
are  expressive  and  significant. 

In  the  Chapel  of  the  Magdalene  at  Assisi,  the  same 
subject  is  given  with  some  variation.  The  bark  con- 
taining the  pilgrims  is  guided  by  an  angel,  and  the  in- 
fant is  seated  by  the  head  of  the  mother,  as  if  watch- 
ing her. 


ST,  MARY  MAGDALENE. 


401 


The  life  of  Mary  Magdalene  in  a series  of  subjects, 
mingling  the  Scriptural  and  legendary  incidents,  may 
often  be  found  in  the  old  French  and  Italian  churches, 
more  especially  in  the  chapels  dedicated  to  her  : and  I 
should  think  that  among  the  remains  of  ancient  paint- 
ing now  in  course  of  discovery  in  our  own  sacred  edi- 
fices they  cannot  fail  to  occur.*  In  the  mural  frescos,  in 
the  altar-pieces,  the  stained  glass,  and  the  sculpture  of 
the  fourteenth  and  fifteenth  centuries,  such  a series  per- 
petually presents  itself ; and,  well  or  ill  executed,  will  in 
general  be  found  to  comprise  the  following  scenes : — 

1.  Her  conversion  at  the  feet  of  the  Saviour.  2. 
Christ  entertained  in  the  house  of  Martha  : Mary  sits 
at  his  feet  to  hear  his  words.  3.  The  raising  of  Laza- 
rus. 4.  Mary  Magdalene  and  her  companions  embark 
in  a vessel  without  sails,  oars,  or  rudder.  5.  Steered 
by  an  angel,  they  land  at  Marseilles.  6.  Mary  Mag- 
dalene preaches  to  the  people.  7.  The  miracle  of  the 
mother  and  child.  8.  The  penance  of  the  Magdalene 
in  a desert  cave.  9.  She  is  carried  up  in  the  arms 
of  angels.  10.  She  receives  the  sacraments  from  the 
hand  of  an  angel  or  from  St.  Maximin.  11.  She  dies, 
and  angels  bear  her  spirit  to  heaven. f 

* There  are  about  150  churches  in  England  dedicated  in  honor 
of  Mary  Magdalene. 

t There  is  a fine  series  of  frescos  from  the  life  of  Mary  Magda- 
lene by  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,  in  the  church  of  St.  Cristoforo  at  Yer- 
celli.  1.  Mary  and  Martha  are  seated,  with  a crowd  of  others, 
listening  to  Christ,  who  is  preaching  in  a pulpit.  Martha  is 
veiled  and  thoughtful : Mary,  richly  dressed,  looks  up  eagerly.  — 
Half  destroyed.  2.  Mary  anoints  the  feet  of  the  Saviour  : she 
lays  her  head  down  on  his  foot  with  a tender  humiliation:  in  the 
background  the  Marys  at  the  sepulchre  and  the  Noli  me  tang  ere. 
This  also  in  great  part  ruined.  3.  The  legend  of  the  Prince  of 
Provence  and  his  wife,  who  are  kneeling  before  Lazarus  and 
Mary.  Martha  is  to  the  left,  and  Marcella  behind.  In  the  back- 
ground are  the  various  scenes  of  the  legend  : — the  embarkation  j 
the  scene  on  the  island  5 the  arrival  at  Jerusalem  5 the  return  to 
Marseilles  with  the  child.  This  is  one  of  the  best  preserved,  and 
the  heads  are  remarkably  fine.  4.  Mary  Magdalene  sustained 
by  angels,  her  feet  resting  between  the  wings  of  one  of  them,  i3 
26 


404  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

The  subjects  vary  of  course  in  number  and  in  treat- 
ment, but,  with  some  attention  to  the  foregoing  legend, 
they  will  easily  be  understood  and  discriminated.  Such 
a series  was  painted  by  Giotto  in  the  Chapel  of  the 
Bargello  at  Florence  (where  the  portrait  of  Dante  was 
lately  discovered),  but  they  are  nearly  obliterated  ; the 
miracle  of  the  mother  and  child  is,  however,  to  be  dis- 
tinguished on  the  left  near  the  entrance.  The  treat- 
ment of  the  whole  has  been  imitated  by  Taddeo  Gaddi 
in  the  Rinuccini  Chapel  at  Florence,  and  by  Giovanni 
da  Milano  and  Giottino  in  the  Chapel  of  the  Magda- 
lene at  Assisi ; on  the  windows  of  the  Cathedrals  of 
Chartres  and  Bourges  ; and  in  a series  of  bas-reliefs 
round  the  porch  of  the  Certosa  of  Pavia,  executed  in 
the  classical  style  of  the  sixteenth  century. 


On  reviewing  generally  the  infinite  variety  which 
has  been  given  to  these  favorite  subjects,  the  life  and 
penance  of  the  Magdalene,  I must  end  where  I be- 
gan ; — in  how  few  instances  has  the  result  been  satis- 
factory to  mind  or  heart,  or  soul  or  sense  ! Many 
have  well  represented  the  particular  situation,  the  ap- 
propriate sentiment,  the  sorrow,  the  hope,  the  devotion  : 
but  who  has  given  us  the  character‘d  A noble  crea- 
ture, with  strong  sympathies,  and  a strong  will,  with 
powerful  faculties  of  every  kind,  working  for  good 
or  evil,  — such  a woman  Mary  Magdalene  must  have 
been,  even  in  her  humiliation  ; and  the  feeble,  girlish, 
commonplace,  and  even  vulgar  women  who  appear  to 
have  been  usually  selected  as  models  by  the  artists, 
turned  into  Magdalenes  by  throwing  up  their  eyes  and 
letting  down  their  hair,  ill  represent  the  enthusiastic 
convert  or  the  majestic  patroness. 

borne  upwards.  All  the  upper  part  of  the  figure  is  destroyed. 
In  the  background  are  the  last  communion  and  burial  of  the  Mag- 
dalene. I saw  these  frescos  in  October,  1855.  They  suffered  greatly 
from  the  siege  in  1638,  when  several  bombs  shattered  this  part  of 
the  wall,  and  will  soon  cease  to  exist.  They  are  engraved  in  their 
present  state  in  Pianazzi’s  “ Opere  di  Gaudenzio  Ferrari,”  No.  19. 


ST.  MARY  MAGDALENE. 


403 

I must  not  quit  the  subject  of  the  Magdalene  with- 
out some  allusion  to  those  wild  legends  which  suppose 
a tender  attachment  (but  of  course  wholly  pure  and 
Platonic)  to  have  existed  between  her  and  St.  John  the 
Evangelist.*  In  the  enthusiasm  which  Mary  Magda- 
lene excited  in  the  thirteenth  century,  no  supposition 
that  tended  to  exalt  her  was  deemed  too  extravagant : 
some  of  her  panegyrists  go  so  far  as  to  insist  that  the 
marriage  at  Cana,  which  our  Saviour  and  his  mother 
honored  by  their  presence,  was  the  marriage  of  St. 
John  with  the  Magdalene  ; and  that  Christ  repaired  to 
the  wedding-feast  on  purpose  to  prevent  the  accomplish- 
ment of  the  marriage,  having  destined  both  to  a state 
of  greater  perfection.  This  fable  was  never  accepted 
by  the  Church ; and  among  the  works  of  art  conse- 
crated to  religious  purposes  I have  never  met  with  any 
which  placed  St.  John  and  the  Magdalene  in  particular 
relation  to  each  other,  except  when  they  are  seen  to- 
gether at  the  foot  of  the  cross,  or  lamenting  with  the 
Virgin  over  the  body  of  the  Saviour  : but  such  was  the 
popularity  of  these  extraordinary  legends  towards  the  end 
of  the  thirteenth  and  in  the  beginning  of  the  fourteenth 
century,  that  I think  it  possible  such  may  exist,  and,  for 
want  of  this  key,  may  appear  hopelessly  enigmatical. 

In  a series  of  eight  subjects  which  exhibit  the  life  of 
St.  John  prefixed  to  a copy  of  the  Revelations,!  there 
is  one  which  I think  admits  of  this  interpretation. 
The  scene  is  the  interior  of  a splendid  building  sus- 
tained by  pillars.  St.  John  is  baptizing  a beautiful 
woman,  who  is  sitting  in  a tub ; she  has  long  golden 
hair.  On  the  outside  of  the  building  seven  men  are 
endeavoring  to  see  what  is  going  forward  : one  peeps 
through  the  key-hole ; one  has  thrown  himself  flat  on 

* Bayle,  Diet.  Hist.*,  Molanus,  lib.  iv.,de  Hist.  Sacrar.  S.  Mag., 
cap.  XX.  p.  428  ; Thomasiura,  prefat.  78.  The  authority  usually 
cited  is  Abdius,  a writer  who  pretended  to  have  lived  in  the  first 
century,  and  whom  Bayle  styles  “ the  most  impudent  of  legen- 
dary impostors.” 

t Paris  Bibliotheque  du  Roi,  MS.  7013,  fourteenth  century. 


404  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

the  ground,  and  has  his  eye  to  an  aperture ; a third, 
mounted  on  the  shoulders  of  another,  is  trying  to  look  in 
at  a window ; a fifth,  who  cannot  get  near  enough,  tears 
his  hair  in  an  agony  of  impatience  ; and  another  is  bawl- 
ing into  the  car  of  a deaf  and  blind  comrade  a descrip- 
tion of  what  he  has  seen.  The  execution  is  French, 
of  the  fourteenth  century ; the  taste,  it  will  be  said,  is 
also  French ; the  figures  are  drawn  with  a pen  and 
slightly  tinted  • the  design  is  incorrect ; but  the  vivaci- 
ty of  gesture  and  expression,  though  verging  on  cari- 
cature, is  so  true,  and  so  comically  dramatic,  and  the 
•whole  composition  so  absurd,  that  it  is  impossible  to 
look  at  it  without  a smile. 


St.  Martha. 

Ital.  Santa  Marta,  Vergine,  Albergatrice  di  Christo.  Fr.  Sainte 
Marthe,  la  Travailleuse.  Patroness  of  cooks  and  housewives. 
June  29,  A d.  84. 

Martha  has  shared  in  the  veneration  paid  to  her 
sister.  The  important  part  assigned  to  her  in  the  his- 
tory of  Mary  has  already  been  adverted  to  ; she  is  al- 
ways represented  as  the  instrument  through  whom 
Mary  was  converted,  the  one  who  led  her  first  to  the 
feet  of  the  Saviour.  <<  Which  thing,^^  says  the  story, 
should  not  be  accounted  as  the  least  of  her  merits, 
seeing  that  Martha  was  a chaste  and  prudent  virgin, 
and  the  other  publicly  contemned  for  her  evil  life ; 
not^vithstanding  which,  Martha  did  not  despise  her, 
nor  reject  her  as  a sister,  but  wept  for  her  shame,  and 
admonished  her  gently  and  with  persuasive  words ; 
and  reminded  her  of  her  noble  birth,  to  which  she  was 
a disgrace,  and  that  Lazarus,  their  brother,  being  a 
soldier,  would  certainly  get  into  trouble  on  her  account. 
So  she  prevailed  and  conducted  her  sister  to  the  pres- 
ence of  Christ,  and  afterwards,  as  it  is  well  known,  she 
lodged  and  entertained  the  Saviour  in  her  own  house. * 


* II  Perfetto  Legendario. 


ST.  MARTUA. 


405 

According  to  the  Proven9al  legend,  while  Mary 
Magdalene  converted  the  people  of  Marseilles,  Martha 
preached  to  the  people  of  Aix  and  its  vicinity.  In 
those  days  the  country  was  ravaged  by  a fearful  dragon, 
called  the  Tarasque,  which  during  the  day  lay  con- 
cealed in  the  river  Rhone.  Martha  overcame  this 
monster  by  sprinkling  him  with  holy  water,  and  hav- 
ing bound  him  with  her  girdle  (or,  as  others  say,  her 
garter),  the  people  speedily  put  an  end  to  him.  The 
scene  of  this  legend  is  now  the  city  of  Tarascon,  where 
there  is,  or  was,  a magnificent  chun^h,  dedicated  to  St. 
Martha,  and  richly  endowed  by  Louis  XI. 

The  same  legends  assure  us  that  St.  Martha  was 
the  first  who  founded  a monastery  for  women  ; the 
first,  after  the  blessed  Mother  of  Christ,  who  vowed 
her  virginity  to  God ; and  that  when  she  had  passed 
many  years  in  prayer  and  good  works,  feeling  that 
her  end  was  near,  she  desired  to  be  carried  to  a spot 
where  she  could  see  the  glorious  sun  in  heaven,  and 
that  they  should  read  to  her  the  history  of  the  passion 
of  Christ ; and  when  they  came  to  the  words,  Father, 
into  thy  hands  I commend  my  spirit,^*  she  died. 

As  Mary  Magdalene  is  the  patroness  of  repentant 
frailty,  so  Martha  is  the  especial  patroness  of  female 
discretion  and  good  housekeeping.  In  this  character, 
she  is  often  represented  with  a skimmer  or  ladle  in  her 
hand,  or  a large  bunch  of  keys  is  attached  to  her  girdle. 
For  example,  in  a beautiful  old  German  altar-piece,  at- 
tributed to  Albert  Diirer,^  she  is  standing  in  a mag- 
nificent dress,  a jewelled  turban,  and  holding  a well- 
known  implement  of  cookery  in  her  hand.  In  a mis- 
sal of  Henry  VIII., f she  is  represented  with  the  same 
utensil,  and  her  name  is  inscribed  beneath.  In  gen- 
eral, however,  her  dress  is  not  rich,  but  homely,  and  her 
usual  attributes  as  patron  saint  are  the  pot  of  holy- 
water,  the  asperge  in  her  hand,  and  a dragon  bound  at 
her  feet.  In  the  chapels  dedicated  to  the  Magdalene,  she 
finds  her  appropriate  place  as  pendant  to  her  sister, 

* Queen’s  Gal.  f Bodleian  MSS.,  Oxford. 


4o6  sacred  and  LEGENDARY  ART. 

generally  distinguished  by  her  close  coif,  and  by  being 
draped  in  blue  or  dark  brown  or  gray ; while  the  Mag- 
dalene is  usually  habited  in  red.  When  attended  by 
her  dragon,  St.  Martha  is  sometimes  confounded  with 
St.  Margaret,  who  is  also  accompanied  by  a dragon  : 
but  it  must  be  remembered  that  St.  Margaret  bears  a 
crucifix  or  palm,  and  St.  Martha  the  pot  of  holy-water  ; 
and  in  general  the  early  painters  have  been  careful  to 
distinguish  these  attributes. 

St.  Martha,  besides  being  a model  of  female  discre- 
tion, sobriety,  and  chastity,  and  the  patroness  of  good 
housewives,  was,  according  to  the  old  legends,  the  same 
woman  who  was  healed  by  Christ,  and  who  in  grati- 
tude erected  to  his  honor  a bronze  statue,  which  statue 
is  said  to  have  existed  in  the  time  of  Eusebius,  and  to 
have  been  thrown  down  by  Julian  the  Apostate.^ 

When  Martha  and  Mary  stand  together  as  patron- 
esses, one  represents  the  activey  the  other  the  contempla- 
live,  Christian  life. 

Martha  is  generally  introduced  among  the  holy 
women  who  attend  the  crucifixion  and  entombment 
of  our  Lord.  In  a most  beautiful  Entombment  by 
Ambrogio  Lorenzetti,  Martha  kisses  the  hand  of  the 
Saviour,  while  Mary  Magdalene  is  seen  behind  with 
outspread  arms  : Lazarus  and  Maximin  stand  at  the 
head  of  the  Saviour. 


Lazarus,  the  brother  of  Martha  and  Mary,  is  re- 
vered as  the  first  bishop  and  patron  saint  of  Marseilles, 
and  is  generally  represented  with  the  mitre  and  stole. 
There  are  at  least  fifty  saints  who  wear  the  same  attire ; 
but  when  a figure  in  episcopal  robes  is  introduced  into 
the  same  picture,  or  the  same  series,  with  Martha  and 

* It  is  perhaps  in  reference  to  this  tradition  that  St.  Martha 
has  become  the  patroness  of  an  order  of  charitable  women,  who 
serve  in  the  hospitals,  particularly  the  military  hospitals,  in 
France  and  elsewhere,  — her  brother  Lazarus  having  been  a 
soldier. 


ST.  LAZARUS. 


407 


Mary,  it  may  be  presumed,  if  not  otherwise  distin- 
guished, to  be  St.  Lazarus  : sometimes,  but  rarely, 
the  introduction  of  a bier,  or  his  resurrection,  in  the 
background,  serves  to  fix  the  identity.  Grouped  with 
these  three  saints,  we  occasionally  find  St.  Marcella 
(or  Martilla),  who  accompanied  them  from  the  East, 
but  who  is  not  distinguished  by  any  attribute ; nor  is 
anything  particular  related  of  her,  except  that  she 
wrote  the  life  of  Martha,  and  preached  the  Gospel  in 
Sclavonia. 

There  are  beautiful  full-length  figures  of  Mary,  Mar- 
tha, Lazarus,  and  Marcella,  in  the  Brera  at  Milan, 
painted  by  one  of  the  Luini  school,  and  treated  in  a 
very  classical  and  noble  style ; draped,  and  standing 
in  niches  to  represent  statues.  At  Munich  are  the 
separate  figures  of  Mary,  Martha,  and  Lazarus,  by 
Gruenewald  ; Lazarus  is  seen  standing  by  his  bier ; 
Mary,  in  the  rich  costume  of  a German  lady  of  rank, 
presents  her  vase  ; and  Martha  is  habited  like  a Ger- 
man hausfrauy  with  her  dragon  at  her  feet.  They  are 
much  larger  than  life,  admirably  painted,  and  full  of 
character,  though  somewhat  grotesque  in  treatment. 

Over  the  altar  of  the  church  “ La  Major ''  at  Mar- 
seilles, stands  Lazarus  as  bishop  ; Mary  on  the  right, 
and  Martha  on  the  left : underneath  these  three  statues 
runs  a series  of  bas-reliefs  containing  the  history  of 
Lazarus.  1.  He  is  recalled  to  life.  2.  Seated  on  the 
edge  of  his  tomb  he  addresses  the  spectators.  3.  He 
entertains  Christ.  4.  The  arrival  at  Marseilles.  5.  He 
preaches  to  the  people.  6.  He  is  consecrated  bishop. 
7.  He  suffers  martyrdom. 

In  a tabernacle  or  triptica  by  Niccolo  Frumenti  (a.  d. 
1461*),  the  central  compartment  represents  the  raising 
of  Lazarus,  who  has  the  truest  and  most  horrid  ex- 
pression of  death  and  dawning  life  I ever  beheld.  On 
the  volet  to  the  right  is  the  supper  in  the  house  of 
Levi,  and  the  Magdalene  anointing  the  feet  of  the 


* ri.  Gal. 


4o8  sacred  and  LEGENDARY  ART. 

Saviour ; on  the  left  volet,  Martha  meets  him  on  his 
arrival  at  Bethany : Lord,  if  thou  hadst  been  here, 
my  brother  had  not  died/’ 

In  the  chapel  of  Mary  Magdalene  at  Assisi,  we  find, 
besides  the  history  of  her  life,  full-length  figures  of 
Mary,  Martha,  Lazarus,  and  Maximin.  Mary,  a beau- 
tiful, dignified  figure,  as  usual  in  rich,  red  drapery, 
stands  to  the  right  of  the  altar,  holding  out  her  hand 
to  a kneeling  Franciscan  : on  the  left  Martha  stands  in 
gray  drapery  with  a close  hood : Lazarus  and  Maximin 
as  bishops. 

This  will  give  an  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  these 
personages  are  either  grouped  together,  or  placed  in 
connection  with  each  other. 


St.  Mary  of  Egypt. 

Ital.  Santa  Maria  Egiziaca  Penitente.  Fr.  Sainte  Marie  l’Eg3rp- 
tienne,  La  Gipesienne,  La  Jussienne.  April  2,  A.  d.  433. 

I PLACE  the  story  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt  here,  for 
though  she  had  no  real  connection  with  the  Magdalene, 
in  works  of  art  they  are  perpetually  associated  as  les 
hienheureuses  peclieresses,  and  in  their  personal  and  pic- 
torial attributes  not  unfrequently  confounded.  The 
legend  of  Mary  Egyptiaca  is  long  anterior  to  that  of 
Mary  Magdalene.  It  was  current  in  a written  form 
so  early  as  the  sixth  century,  being  then  received  as 
a true  history ; but  it  appears  to  have  been  originally 
one  of  those  instructive  parables  or  religious  romances 
which,  in  the  early  ages  of  the  Church,  were  composed 
and  circulated  for  the  edification  of  the  pious.  In 
considering  the  manners  of  that  time,  we  may  easily 
believe  that  it  may  have  had  some  foundation  in  fact. 
That  a female  anchoret  of  the  name  of  Mary  lived  and 
died  in  a desert  of  Palestine  near  the  river  Jordan,  — 
that  she  there  bewailed  her  sins  in  solitude  for  a long 
course  of  years,  and  was  accidentally  discovered,  — is 


ST.  MARY  OF  EGYPT. 


409 


a very  ancient  tradition,  supported  by  contemporary 
evidence.  The  picturesque,  miraculous,  and  romantic 
incidents  with  which  the  story  has  been  adorned,  ap- 
pear to  have  been  added  to  enhance  the  interest ; and, 
in  its  present  form,  the  legend  is  attributed  to  St.  Je- 
rome. 

Towards  the  year  of  our  Lord  365,  there  dwelt  in 
Alexandria  a woman  whose  name  was  Mary,  and  who 
in  the  infamy  of  her  life  far  exceeded  Mary  Magdalene. 
After  passing  seventeen  years  in  every  species  of  vice, 
it  happened  that  one  day,  while  roving  along  the  sea- 
shore, she  beheld  a ship  ready  to  sail,  and  a large  com- 
pany preparing  to  embark.  She  inquired  whither  they 
were  going  ? They  replied  that  they  were  going  up 
to  Jerusalem,  to  celebrate  the  feast  of  the  true  cross. 
She  was  seized  with  a sudden  desire  to  accompany 
them ; but  having  no  money,  she  paid  the  price  of 
her  passage  by  selling  herself  to  the  sailors  and  pil- 
grims, whom  she  allured  to  sin  by  every  means  in  her 
power.  On  their  arrival  at  Jerusalem,  she  joined  the 
crowds  of  worshippers  who  had  assembled  to  enter  the 
church ; but  all  her  attempts  to  pass  the  threshold  were 
in  vain ; whenever  she  thought  to  enter  the  porch,  a 
supernatural  power  drove  her  back  in  shame,  in  terror, 
in  despair.  Struck  by  the  remembrance  of  her  sins, 
and  filled  with  repentance,  she  humbled  herself  and 
prayed  for  help  ; the  interdiction  was  removed,  and 
she  entered  the  church  of  God,  crawling  on  her  knees. 
Thenceforward  she  renounced  her  wicked  and  shameful 
life,  and,  buying  at  a baker’s  three  small  loaves,  she 
wandered  forth  into  solitude,  and  never  stopped  or  re- 
posed till  she  had  penetrated  into  the  deserts  beyond 
the  Jordan,  where  she  remained  in  severest  penance, 
living  on  roots  and  fruits,  and  drinking  water  only : 
her  garments  dropped  away  in  rags  piecemeal,  leaving 
her  unclothed  ; and  she  prayed  fervently  not  to  be  left 
thus  exposed ; suddenly  her  hair  grew  so  long  as  to 
form  a covering  for  her  whole  person  (or,  according 
to  another  version,  an  angel  brought  her  a garment 


410  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

from  heaven).  Thus  she  dwelt  in  the  wilderness,  in 
prayer  and  penance,  supported  only  by  her  three  small 
loaves,  which,  like  the  widow^s  meal,  failed  her  not, 
until,  after  the  lapse  of  forty-seven  years,  she  was  dis- 
covered by  a priest  named  Zosimus.  Of  him  she  re- 
quested silence,  and  that  he  would  return  at  the  end  of 
a year,  and  bring  with  him  the  elements  of  the  holy 
sacrament,  that  she  might  confess  and  communicate, 
before  she  was  released  from  earth.  And  Zosimus 
obeyed  her,  and  returned  after  a year ; but  not  being 
able  to  pass  the  Jordan,  the  penitent,  supernaturally 
assisted,  passed  over  the  water  to  him ; and,  having 
received  the  sacrament  with  tears,  she  desired  the  priest 
to  leave  her  once  more  to  her  solitude,  and  to  return  in 
a year  from  that  time.  And  when  he  returned  he  found 
her  dead,  her  hands  crossed  on  her  bosom.  And  he 
wept  greatly ; and,  looking  round,  he  saw  written  in 
the  sand  these  words  : — <0  Father  Zosimus,  bury  the 
body  of  the  poor  sinner,  Mary  of  Egypt ! Give  earth 
to  earth,  and  dust  to  dust,  for  Christ's  sake  ! ' He  en- 
deavored to  obey  this  last  command,  but  being  full  of 
years,  and  troubled  and  weak,  his  strength  failed  him, 
and  a lion  came  out  of  the  wood  and  aided  him,  dig- 
ging with  his  paws  till  the  grave  was  sufficiently  large 
to  receive  the  body  of  the  saint,  which,  being  commit- 
ted to  the  earth,  the  lion  retired  gently,  and  the  old 
man  returned  home,  praising  God,  who  had  shown 
mercy  to  the  penitent.” 

In  single  figures  and  devotional  pictures,  Mary  of 
Egypt  is  portrayed  as  a meagre,  wasted,  aged  woman, 
with  long  hair,  and  holding  in  her  hand  three  small 
loaves.  Sometimes  she  is  united  with  Mary  Magda- 
lene, as  joint  emblems  of  female  penitence ; and  not 
in  painting  only,  but  in  poetry,  — 

“ Like  redeemed  Magdalene, 

Or  that  Egyptian  penitent,  whose  tears 
Fretted  the  rock,  and  moistened  round  her  cave 
The  thirsty  desert.” 


ST.  MARY  OF  EGYPT. 


41 1 

Thus  they  stand  together  in  a little,  rare  print  by  Marc 
Antonio,  the  one  distinguished  by  her  vase,  the  other 
by  her  three  loaves.  Sometimes,  when  they  stand  to- 
gether, Mary  Magdalene  is  young,  beautiful,  richly 
dressed ; and  Mary  of  Egypt,  a squalid,  meagre,  old 
woman,  covered  with  rags  : as  in  a rare  and  curious 
print  by  Israel  von  Mecken.^ 

Pictures  from  her  life  are  not  common.  The  earliest 
I have  met  with  is  the  series  painted  on  the  walls  of 
the  Chapel  of  the  Bargello,  at  Florence,  above  the  life 
of  Mary  Magdalene  : they  had  been  whitewashed  over. 

In  seeking  for  the  portrait  of  Dante  this  whitewash  has 
been  in  part  removed  ; and  it  is  only  just  possible  for 
those  acquainted  with  the  legend  to  trace  in  several 
compartments  the  history  of  Mary  of  Egypt. 

1.  Detached  subjects  are  sometimes  met  with.  In 
the  church  of  San  Pietro-in-Po,  at  Cremona,  they  pre- 
serve relics  said  to  be  those  of  Mary  of  Egypt : and 
over  the  altar  there  is  a large  picture  by  Malosso,  rep- 
resenting the  saint  at  the  door  of  the  Temple  at  Jeru- 
salem, and  repulsed  by  a miraculous  power.  She  is 
richly  dressed,  with  a broad-brimmed  hat,  and  stands 
on  the  step,  as  one  endeavoring  to  enter,  while  several 
persons  look  on,  — some  amazed,  others  mocking. 

2.  Mary  of  Egypt  doing  penance  in  the  desert  is 

easily  confounded  with  the  penitent  Magdalene.  Where 
there  is  no  skull,  no  vase  of  ointment,  no  crucifix 
near  her,  where  the  penitent  is  aged,  or  at  least  not 
young  and  beautiful,  with  little  or  no  drapery,  and 
black  or  gray  hair,  the  picture  may  be  presumed  to 
represent  Mary  of  Egypt,  and  not  the  Magdalene,  how- 
ever like  in  situation  and  sentiment.  There  is  a large, 
fine  picture  of  this  subject  at  Alton  Towers.  ^ 

3.  The  first  meeting  of  Mary  and  the  hermit  Zosi- 
mus  has  been  painted  by  Ribera : in  this  picture  her 
hair  is  gray  and  short,  her  skin  dark  and  sunburnt, 
and  she  is  clothed  in  rags. 


* B.  Museum. 


412  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

4.  In  another  picture  by  the  same  painter  she  is 
passing  over  the  Jordan  by  the  help  of  angels ; she 
is  seen  floating  in  the  air  with  her  hands  clasped,  and 
Zosimus  is  kneeling  by.  This  subject  might  easily  be 
confounded  with  the  Assumption  of  the  Magdalene, 
but  the  sentiment  ought  to  distinguish  them  ; for,  in- 
stead of  the  ecstatic  trance  of  the  Magdalene,  we  have 
merely  a miraculous  incident : the  figure  is  but  little 
raised  above  the  waters,  and  the  hermit  is  kneeling  on 
the  shore.* 

5.  St.  Mary  receives  the  last  communion  from  the 
hands  of  Zosimus.  I have  known  this  subject  to  be 
confounded  with  the  last  communion  of  the  Magda- 
lene. The  circumstances  of  the  scene,  as  well  as  the 
character,  should  be  attended  to.  Mary  of  Egypt  re- 
ceives the  sacrament  in  the  desert ; a river  is  generally 
in  the  background  : Zosimus  is  an  aged  monk.  Where 
the  Magdalene  receives  the  sacrament  from  the  hands 
of  Maximin,  the  scene  is  a portico  or  chapel  with 
rich  architecture,  and  Maximin  wears  the  habit  of  a 
bishop. 

6.  The  death  of  Mary  of  Egypt.  Zosimus  is  kneel- 
ing beside  her,  and  the  lion  is  licking  her  feet  or  dig- 
ging her  grave.  The  presence  of  the  lion  distinguishes 
this  subject  from  the  death  of  Mary  Magdalene. 

St.  Mary  of  Egypt  was  early  a popular  saint  in 
France,  and  particularly  venerated  by  the  Parisians, 
till  eclipsed  by  the  increasing  celebrity  of  the  Magda- 
lene. She  was  styled,  familiarly.  La  Gipesienne  (the 
Gypsy),  softened  by  time  into  La  Jussienne.  The 
street  in  which  stood  a convent  of  reformed  women 
dedicated  to  her,  is  still  la  Rue  Jussienne. 

We  find  her  whole  story  in  one  of  the  richly  painted 
* windows  of  the  cathedral  of  Chartres  ; and  again  in 
the  Yitraux  de  Bourges,^^  where  the  inscription  un- 
derneath is  written  “ Segiptiaca.^^ 

Among  the  best  modern  frescos  which  I saw  at 
Paris,  was  the  decoration  of  a chapel  in  the  church 

* It  was  in  the  Sp.  Gal.  in  the  Louvre,  now  dispersed. 


ST.  MARY  OF  EGYPT. 


413 


of  St.  Merry,  dedicated  to  Ste.  Marie  TEgyptienne : 
the  religious  sentiment  and  manner  of  Middle-Age  Art 
are  as  usual  imitated,  but  with  a certain  unexpected 
originality  in  the  conception  of  some  of  the  subjects, 
which  pleased  me.  1.  On  the  wall,  to  the  right,  she 
stands  leaning  on  the  pedestal  of  the  statue  of  the 
Madonna  in  a meditative  attitude,  and  having  the 
dress  and  the  dark  complexion  of  an  Egyptian  dancing- 
girl  ; a crowd  of  people  are  seen  behind  entering  the 
gates  of  the  Temple,  at  which  she  alone  has  been  re- 
pulsed. 2.  She  receives  the  communion  from  the 
hand  of  Zosimus,  and  is  buried  by  a lion. 

On  the  left-hand  wall.  3.  Her  apotheosis.  She  is 
borne  aloft  by  many  angels,  two  of  whom  swing  cen- 
sers, and  below  is  seen  the  empty  grave  watched  by  a 
lion.  4.  Underneath  is  a group  of  hermits,  to  whom 
the  aged  Zosimus  is  relating  the  story  of  the  penitence 
and  death  of  St.  Mary  of  Egypt. 

I do  not  in  general  accept  modern  representations  as 
authorities,  nor  quote  them  as  examples  ; but  this  re- 
suscitation of  Mary  of  Egypt  in  a city  where  she  was 
so  long  a favorite  saint,  appears  to  me  a curious  fact. 
Her  real  existence  is  doubted  even  by  the  writers  of 
that  Church  which,  for  fourteen  centuries,  has  cele- 
brated her  conversion  and  glorified  her  name.  Yet 
the  poetical,  the  moral  significance  of  her  story  re- 
mains ; and,  as  I have  reason  to  know,  can  still  im- 
press the  fancy,  and,  through  the  fancy,  waken  the 
conscience  and  touch  the  heart. 

There  were  several  other  legends  current  in  the 
early  ages  of  Christianity,  promulgated,  it  should 
seem,  with  the  distinct  purpose  of  calling  the  frail 
and  sinning  woman  to  repentance.  If  these  were 
not  pure  inventions,  if  the  names  of  these  beatified 
penitents  retained  in  the  offices  of  the  Church  must 
be  taken  as  evidence  that  they  did  exist,  it  is  not  less 
certain  that  the  prototype  in  all  these  cases  was  the 
reclaimed  woman  of  the  Scriptures,  and  that  it  was 
the  pitying  charity  of  Christ  which  first  taught  men 
and  angels  to  rejoice  over  the  sinner  that  repenteth. 


414  SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

The  legend  of  Mary,  the  niece  of  the  hermit  Abra- 
ham* must  not  be  confounded  with  that  of  Mary  of 
Egypt.  The  scene  of  this  story  is  placed  in  the  des- 
erts of  Syria.  The  anchoret  Abraham  had  a brother, 
who  lived  in  the  world  and  possessed  great  riches,  and 
when  he  died,  leaving  an  only  daughter,  she  was 
brought  to  her  uncle  Abraham,  apparently  because  of 
his  great  reputation  for  holiness,  to  be  brought  up  as 
he  should  think  fit.  The  ideas  of  this  holy  man,  with 
regard  to  education,  seem  to  have  been  those  enter- 
tained by  many  wise  and  religious  people  since  his 
time ; but  there  was  this  difference,  that  he  did  not 
show  her  the  steep  and  thorny  way  to  heaven,  and 
choose  for  himself  <<the  primrose  path  of  dalliance.^' 
Instead  of  applying  to  his  charge  a code  of  morality 
as  distinct  as  possible  from  his  own,  he,  more  just, 
only  brought  up  his  niece  in  the  same  ascetic  princi- 
ples which  he  deemed  necessary  for  the  salvation  of 
all  men. 

Mary,  therefore,  being  brought  to  her  uncle  when  she 
was  only  seven  years  old,  he  built  a cell  close  to  his 
own,  in  w^hich  he  shut  her  up  ; and,  through  a little 
window,  which  opened  between  their  cells,  he  taught 
her  to  say  her  prayers,  to  recite  the  Psalter,  to  sing 
hymns,  and  dedicated  her  to  a life  of  holiness  and  sol- 
itude, praying  continually  that  she  might  be  delivered 
from  the  snares  of  the  arch-enemy,  and  keeping  her 
far,  as  he  thought,  from  all  possibility  of  temptation; 
while  he  daily  instructed  her  to  despise  and  hate  all  the 
pleasures  and  vanities  of  the  world. 

Thus  Mary  grew  up  in  her  cell  till  she  was  twenty 
years  old  : then  it  happened  that  a certain  youth,  who 
had  turned  hermit  and  dwelt  in  that  desert,  came  to 
visit  Abraham  to  receive  his  instructions ; and  he  be- 
held through  the  window  the  face  of  the  maiden  as  she 
prayed  in  her  cell,  and  heard  her  voice  as  she  sang  the 
morning  and  the  evening  hymn  ; and  he  was  inflamed 
with  desire  of  her  beauty,  till  his  whole  heart  became 


* Santa  Maria  Penitente. 


ST,  MARY  OF  EGYPT, 


415 


as  a furnace  for  the  love  of  her  ; and  forgetting  his  re- 
ligious vocation,  and  moved  thereto  by  the  Devil,  he 
tempted  Mary,  and  she  fell.  When  she  came  to  her- 
self, her  heart  was  .troubled ; she  beat  her  breast  and 
wept  bitterly,  thinking  of  what  she  had  been,  what  she 
had  now  become ; and  she  despaired,  and  said  in  her 
heart,  For  me  there  is  no  hope,  no  return ; shame 
is  my  portion  evermore  \”  So  she  fled,  not  daring 
to  meet  the  face  of  her  uncle,  and  went  to  a distant 
place,  and  lived  a life  of  sin  and  shame  for  two  years. 

Now,  on  the  same  night  that  she  fled  from  her  cell, 
Abraham  had  a dream  ; and  he  saw  in  his  dream  a 
monstrous  dragon,  who  came  to  his  cell,  and  finding 
there  a beautiful  white  dove,  devoured  it,  and  returned 
to  his  den.  When  the  hermit  awoke  from  his  dream, 
he  was  perplexed,  and  knew  not  what  it  might  por- 
tend ; but  again  he  dreamt,  and  he  saw  the  same  drag- 
on, and  he  put  his  foot  on  its  head,  and  crushed  it, 
and  took  from  its  maw  the  beautiful  dove,  and  put  it 
in  his  bosom,  and  it  came  to  life  again,  and  spread  its 
wings  and  flew  towards  heaven. 

Then  the  old  man  knew  that  this  must  relate  to  his 
niece  Mary ; so  he  took  up  his  staff*,  and  went  forth 
through  the  world,  seeking  her  everywhere.  At  length 
he  found  her,  and  seeing  her  overpowered  with  shame 
and  despair,  he  exhorted  her  to  take  courage,  and  com- 
forted her,  and  promised  to  take  her  sin  and  her  pen- 
ance on  himself.  She  wept  and  embraced  his  knees,  and 
said,  ‘‘  O my  father  ! if  thou  thinkest  that  there  is  hope 
for  me,  I will  follow  thee  whithersoever  thou  gocst, 
and  kiss  thy  footsteps  which  lead  me  out  of  this  gulf 
of  sin  and  death  ! ” So  he  prayed  with  her,  and  re- 
minded her  that  God  did  not  desire  the  death  of  a sin- 
ner, but  rather  that  he  should  turn  from  his  wicked- 
ness and  live  ; and  she  was  comforted.  And  the  next 
morning  Abraham  rose  up  and  took  his  niece  by  the 
hand,  leaving  behind  them  her  gay  attire  and  jewels 
and  ill-gotten  wealth.  And  they  returned  together  to 
the  cell  in  the  wilderness. 


41 6 SACRED  AND  LEGENDARY  ART, 

From  this  time  did  Mary  lead  a life  of  penitence  and 
of  great  humility,  ministering  to  her  aged  uncle,  who 
died  glorifying  God  : after  his  death,  she  lived  on  many 
years,  praising  God  and  doing  good  in  humbleness  and 
singleness  of  heart,  and  having  favor  with  the  people ; 
so  that  from  all  the  country  round  they  brought  the 
sick,  and  those  who  were  possessed,  and  she  healed 
them,  — such  virtue  was  in  her  prayers,  although  she 
had  been  a sinner  ! Nay,  it  is  written,  that  even  the 
touch  of  her  garment  restored  health  to  the  afflicted. 
At  length  she  died,  and  the  angels  carried  her  spirit 
out  of  the  shadow  and  the  cloud  of  sin,  into  the  glory 
and  the  joy  of  heaven. 

Although  the  legend  of  Mary  the  Penitent  is  ac- 
cepted by  the  Church,  which  celebrates  her  conversion 
on  the  29th  of  October,  efflgies  of  her  must  be  rare ; 
I have  never  met  with  a,ny  devotional  representation  of 
her.  A print  attributed  to  Albert  Durer  represents  the 
hermit  Abraham  bringing  back  his  penitent  niece  to 
his  cell.* 

In  the  Louvre  are  two  large  landscapes  by  Philippe 
de  Champagne,  which  in  poetry  and  grandeur  of  con- 
ception come  near  to  those  of  Niccolb  Poussin ; both 
represent  scenes  from  the  life  of  Mary  the  Penitent. 
In  the  first,  amid  a wild  and  rocky  landscape,  is  the 
cell  of  Abraham,  and  Mary,  sitting  within  it,  is  visited 
by  the  young  hermit  who  tempted  her  to  sin  : in  the 
second,  we  have  the  same  wilderness,  under  another 
aspect ; Mary,  in  a rude  secluded  hut,  embowered  in 
trees,  is  visited  by  pilgrims  and  votaries,  who  bring  to 
her  on  their  shoulders  and  on  litters,  the  sick  and 
afflicted,  to  be  healed  by  her  prayers.  The  daughter 
of  Champagne,  whom  he  tenderly  loved,  was  a nun  at 
Port  Eoyal,  and  I think  it  probable  that  these  pictures 
(like  others  of  his  works)  were  painted  for  that  cele- 
brated convent. 

St.  Thais,  a renowned  Greek  saint,  is  another  of 
* Leben  und  Werke  von  Albrecht  Durer,  No.  2067. 


ST.  PELAGIA. 


4*y 

these  “ bienheureiises  pecheresses”  not  the  same  who  sat 
at  Alexander’s  feast,  and  fired  Persepolis,  but  a fire- 
brand in  her  own  way.  St.  Pelagia,  called  Pelagia 
Meretrix  and  Pelagia  Mima  (for  she  was  also  an  ac- 
tress), is  another.  These  I pass  over  without  farther 
notice,  because  I have  never  seen  nor  read  of  any  rep- 
resentation of  them  in  Western  Art. 

St.  Afra,  who  sealed  her  conversion  with  her  blood, 
will  be  found  among  the  Martyrs. 

Poets  have  sung,  and  moralists  and  sages  have 
taught,  that  for  the  frail  woman  there  was  nothing  left 
but  to  die ; or  if  more  remained  for  her  to  suffer,  there 
was  at  least  nothing  left  for  her  to  be  or  do  : no  choice 
between  sackcloth  and  ashes  and  the  livery  of  sin. 
The  beatified  penitents  of  the  early  Christian  Church 
spoke  another  lesson ; spoke  divinely  of  hope  for  the 
fallen,  hope  without  self-abasement  or  defiance.  We, 
in  these  days,  acknowledge  no  such  saints  : we  have 
even  done  our  best  to  dethrone  Mary  Magdalene ; but 
we  have  martyrs,  — by  the  pang  without  the  palm,” 
— and  one  at  least  among  these  who  has  not  died  with- 
out lifting  up  a voice  of  eloquent  and  solemn  warning ; 
who  has  borne  her  palm  on  earth,  and  whose  starry 
crown  may  be  seen  on  high,  even  now,  amid  the  con- 
stellations of  Gen?  is. 


END  OF  VOL.  I. 


Cc^mbridge  : Printed  by  Welch,  Bigelow,  & Co. 


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